SACRED AND PROFANE 

HISTORY 

EPITOMIZED; 

WITH X 

CONTINUATION 

OF 

MODERN HISTORY 

TO THE PRESENT TIME- 
TO WHICH 15 ADDED 

AN ACCOUNT 

OF THE 

TEUDAL SYSTEM, THE CRUSADES, CHIVALRY, THE RE- 
rORMATION, AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

TOdETHER WITH A 

COMPREHENSIVE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB. 



By BENJAMIN TUCKER. 



PUBLISHED BY JACOB JOHNSON, AND FOR SALE AT HtS 
B00K.STORES IN PHILADELPHIA, AND 
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 




1806. 

A. BARTRAM} 7RINTER> 



District of Pennsylvama^ to nvit : 

BE IT REMEMBFRED, That on the eighth day of 
April, in the thirtieth Year of the Independence of the United 
States of America, A. D. 1806. Jacob Johnson of the said dis- 
trict, hath deposited in this Office, the Title of a book, the Right 
whereof he claims as Proprietor in the Words following, to wit : 

" Sacred and profane history epitomized; -with a continua* 
" tion of modern history to the present time. To which is 
*' added an account of the feudal system, the crusade?, chi- 
«* valry, the reformation, and the revival of learning. To- 
♦' gethei" with a comprehensive chronological taDle. By 
" Benjamin Tucker. 

In Conformity to the Aci of Consf^cc of the United States, tivt 
tituled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing 
the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Pro. 
prietors of such Copies during the Times therein mentioned." 
And also to the Act, entitled " An Act supplementary to an Act, 
entitled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by secu- 
ring the Copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and 
Proprietors of such Copies during the Times therein mentiohed," 
and extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, e»« 
graving, sknd •tcUing historical and other Prints." 

D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the DlstrieK 
of Pennsylvania. 



.,».rV •^ ^^"^^« 






PREFACE. 

AMONG the variety of objects which present 
themselves to the young and inquirm^ mind; and 
which direct it to the attainment of the most useful 
information, few are more striking or more impor- 
tant, than the study of history. From this source, 
communities and nations are furnished with the bright- 
est examples for the guidance of their actions, and 
individuals enriched with the experience, and animated 
with the virtue, of the most distant ages. 

To give the youth under my care a knowledge of 
the most striking traits of this study, and to excite in 
them a taste for the interesting pursuit, has been the 
object of the following epitome. 

In the higher classes of the seminary it has, for 
some time past; been used in manuscript ; and its bene^ 
fici^l effects have been strikingly visible. But finding 
'that too much of their time was engrossed in transcrib- 
ing- it, and that other brunches of education were in 
danger of being neglected by the continuance of the 
practice, I havcj with considerable solicitude; submitted 
it to the pre:: 3. 

The catechet'cal form has been prefeiTcd, as being 
conceived tlie most effectual to impress zrA familiarize 
the subject. Ir.dee I no otlier mode can be adopted by 
an instructor v»l en inculcu'ciiig this kind of kncvi^iedgc; 
for where the questiors have been omitted, he must nc- 
ce:.sarily s''pply tiitm, and I have found that unless a 



iV PREFACE. 

pupil had a previous knowledge of the question, he Wd» 
always embarrassed in the reply. But as the repetition 
of questions on every little change of subject, would 
only fatigue the teacher without aiding the pupil ; 
the answer on that account, has been frequently extend- 
ed further than the interrogation strictly called for. 

Ancient history has sometimes been extended to th« 
reign of Charlemagne ; but as the division is unim- 
portant, and has little effect upon the relation of events, 
J have chosen to limit it to the fall of the Roman cm* 
pire in the west. At that time, the foundation of 
those kingdoms and empires was laid, which are now 
the most distinguished in the history of Europe. And 
no event that has succeeded it, appeared to me to have 
abetter claim to drawing the line of division. 

Originality in the following work is not professed. Tq 
bring into view some of the most striking events of an- 
cient and modern times, and to excite a taste for the pe-» 
rusal of the historical parts of the sacred writings and 
history in general, has been the design of the under- 
taking. To effect this 1 have had recourse to the most 
approved ancient and modern historians, from vrhom I 
have selected their collected sentiments, or their lan- 
guage, as would best promote the object of the work. 

The comprehensive chronological table added to this 
performance, is taken from the Encyclopedia, publish- 
ed by Thomas Dobson of Philadelphia, to whose 

politeness I am indebted for the copy. 

B. T. 

PhiladeljJiia^ 1S06. , 



INTRODUCTION. 

€i:,WHAT«hiflory? 

A. Hiftory, in the general fenfe of the word, fignifies a true 
relation of fafts and events ; or, confidered in a moral point 
€>fview, it is that lively philofophy, which, laying afide the 
formality of rules, fupplies the place of experience, and teach- 
es us to a6l with propriety and honour, according to the exam- 
ples of others. 

The province of hiftory is fo extcnfive, that is conne<5ted 
with every branch of knowledge; and fo various and abun- 
dant are its ftores, that all arts, fciences, and profeflions are 
indebted to it for many of the materials and principles upoa 
v»hich they depend. It opens the wideft profpefl^s to the eyes 
of mankind in the fpacious fields of literature, and is one 
of (he mod pleafmg and important objects of (iudy, to which 
the mind can be directed. 

Q^Into how many j)arts is hiftory divided ? 

A. Hiftory confidered with refpe6l to the nature of its fubjefls, 
may be divided into general and particular ; and with refpefl to 
time, into ancient and modern. Ancient hiftory commences 
with the creation, and extends to the fall of the. Roman empire 
in the weft. Modern hiftory, beginning with that period, reaches 
dow n to the prefent time. General hiftory relates to nations and 
public affairs, and may be fubdivided into facred and profane. 
Biography, memoirs, and letters, conftitute particular hiftory. 
Sacred history is contained in the Old and New Teftament ; and 
profane, in all other records of antiquity. 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

Q.. What ©iher divifions are there, neccflTary to the ftudy of 
general hiflory ? 

A. It is Lirual, in order to avoid confuflon, to divide it into 
certain parts and intervals, each beginning with fome memora- 
ble occurrence. The creation, the deluge, the Olympiads, 
tlie building of Rome, and the birth of Chrift, are fome of 
the nioft celebrated. Thefe are termed epochas. 

The whole interval of ancient hiftpry is divided into eleven 
parts. The firft extends from the creation to the deluge, 
Vhich includes 1656 years. — The fecond, from the deluge to 
the vocation of Abraham, 426 jears.— The ihird, from the vo- 
cation of Abraham to the departure of the children of Ifrael 
out of Egypt, 430 years. — The fourth, from the departure out 
of Egypt to the deftruaion of Troy, 308 years.— The fifth, 
from the deflrudlion of Troy to the laying the foundation of 
the temple under Solomon, 172 years — -The fixth, from the 
foundation of the temple to the building of Rome, 258 
years. The feventh, from the building of Rome to the reign 
of Cyrus, 216 years. — The eighth, from the reign of Cyrus to 
the deftru6tion of the Perfian empire, 206 years. — The ninth, 
from the fall of the Perfian empire to the deftru(!lion of the 
Macedonian, 163 years — The tenth, from the fall of the Gre- 
cian empire to the birth of Chtifl^, 1&8 years. — The deventh 
and laft, from the commencement of the Chriftian era, to the 
fall of the Roman empire in the weft, 476 years. 

From this period Modern hifioiy commences ; in which the 
feveral kingdoms that have been founded fince that time are 
{iillin(5tly confidcrcd. 



CONTENTS. 



Pag*. 



FIRST EPOCHA. 
The creation, . . . 13 

SECOND EPOCHA. 
The deluge, . . . U 

THIRD EPOCHA. 
The vocation of Abraham, . » 16 

FOURTH EPOCHA. 
The departure out of Egypt, . « 17 

FIFTH EPOCHA. 
The taking of Troy, . . .18 

SIXTH EPOCHA. 
The temple, . * . .20 

SEVENTH EPOCHA. 
The building of Rome, . . . Sf 

EIGHTH EPOCHA. 
The reign of Cyrus, . . . 3g 

NINTH EPOCHA. 
The Grecian empire, . . 'St 

TENTH EPOCHA. 
Fall of the Grecian empire, . . 63 

ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 
The Christian era, . . ,77 

MODERN HISTORY. 
England, » . . .109 

Sweden, . . . . 131 

Denmark, . . , ,136 

Russia, . . . .139 



Viii CONTENTS. 

PA6b. 

Livonia and Esthonia, . . • . 144 

Poland, . . . .145 



Germany, 

Prussia, 

Hungary, 

France, 

Spain, 



150 
158 
162 
163 
174 



Portugal, . . . .181 

United Provinces, . . .186 

Switzerland, . . . 191 

Geneva, . . • 194 

Ecclesiastical States, . . . ibid. 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily^ . 197 

Venice, . . . . 199 

Genoa, . . . 202 

Savoy and Sardinia, * . . 206 

Florence or Tuscany, . . . 20& 

The Republic of Saint Marino, . • 213 

The Turks, . . . .214 

America, . » . . 225 

Mexico, . . . . 233 

Peru, . . . 255 

North America, . . 270 

United States, . . . 273 

The Feudal System, . .278 

The Crusades, • . 281 

Chivalry, . . • . 289 

The Reformation, . . , 293 

The Revival of learning, , . .297 

Chronological table, ; . .305 



rfMwwflmBa 



SJCBED AKD PBOFAXE 



HISTORY, 



EPITOMISED. 



FIRST EPOCHA. 



THE CREATION, 



Q /t T what period of time is tlie creation of the 
jr\. world placed ? 

A. Four thousand and four years before Christ. 

Q. What was the situation of mankind before the 
flood? 

A. It appears in general, from the first chapters of 
Genesis, that the world before the flood was exceeding- 
ly populous ; that mankind had made considerable im- 
provement in the arts, and were become extremely vi- 
cious both in their sentiments and manners ; which gave 
occasion to a memorable catastrophe, by v/hich the 
whole of the human race, except Noah and his family, 
were swept off the earth. 

B 



f6 ANeiENT HISTORY. 



THIRD EPOCIIA. 



THE VOCATION OF ABRAHAM. 

Q. Who were the descendants of Abraham that lefl- 
the land of Canaan ? 

A. His g-randson Jacob, to whom v/erc born the twelve 
patiiarchs. They vvith their father moved from Canaan 
into that part of Egypt, of which I'anis was the capital, 
in the year of tlie world 2298. Moses was born 135 
years afterv/ards, and was instructed in all the learning 
of the Egyptians, who at that time had arrived to a de- 
gree of eminence in the arts and sciences. 

Q. What are the first authentic accounts v/e have of 
Greece ? 

A About the same period, the Egyptians and Phcnici- 
ans sent colonies into several parts of Greece, who mixing 
with the natives, built towns, and fonned a number of 
communities independent of each other. The various 
itiventioiis and arts which they introduced among- the 
original hihabitants, contributed to augment their com-* 
forts, and to civilize their manners. 

Q. How long after this was it, when Moses led the 
children of Israel out of Egypt ? 

-A. In the 856th year of the deluge, and 430 from the 
vocation of Abraham. In Lis progress through the 
wilderness he instituted, bj'divine commiand, the taber- 
n-AcIe service, and established a form of civil government 
among the tribes. 



THIRD EPOCHA. 11^ 



FOURTH EPOCHA, 



THE DEPARTURE OUT OF EGYPT. 

Q. Did Moses conduct the children of Israel into the 
land of Canaan ? 

A. No ; he viewed the promised land from the moun- 
tain of Nebo, and there died. Joshua his successor, 
conducted them into it, and nearly completed the con- 
.quest of Canaan. After him several judges succeeded ; 
but the Israelites, upon the death of the elders thatj?.new 
Joshua, forgot the God of their fathers, and were sedu- 
ced into the idolatry of the neighbouring nations, w^hich 
brought down upon them heavy chastisements. 

Q. What other events occurred at this period ? 

A. In the year of the world 2 679, Pelops, son of Tan- 
talus, reigned in Peloponnesus, and gave his name to 
that famous peninsula ; and Bel or Belus, king of the 
Chaldeans, received from his people divine honours. 

Q. When was the Assyrian empire founded, and hy 
whom ? 

A. It was founded by Ninus the son of Belus, in the 
year of the world 2737, and 5 14 years before the build- 
ing of Rome. 

Q. Where did he establish the seat of his empire ? 

A. At the ancient city of Nineveh, which he greatly 
ornamented and enlarged. In founding this empire 
he subdued a great number of nations from India t<i 
Egypt. 

Q. To whom did he leave his crown ? 

B 2 



18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. To Semiramis, who had been the wife of one of 
his officers, but to whom he v/as afterwards married. 

Q. What account have we of her reiirn ? 

A. It was niuch famed for her conquests and mag- 
nificent woi;ks. In order to immortalize her name, she 
embellished and enhirged the city of Babylon in a few 
years, to such an amazing extent, as to h\v exceed Ni- 
neveh. 

Q. What memorable event occurred during her 
reign ? 

A. In the reign of Semiramis, Troy, which had once 
before been taken by the Greeks, in the reign of Laome^ 
den, was a second time taken and reduced to ashes by 
the same Greeks, in the time of Priam. 

Q. As this era is memorable, not only on account of 
the greatness of the event, which has been celebrated 
by the most distinguished poetSj but as it furnishes a 
proper date in taking the account of fabulous and heroic 
times, mention the particular period when it took 

place ? 

A. It happened in the year of the world 2820 — 1 164 
years after the flood, and 308 years after the departure 
»ut of Egypt. 



FIFTH EPOCHA. 



THE TAKING OF TROY. 



Q. To what period are we to place those ages of fic- 
tion, in which the poets speak of their heroes, the pff- 
spring of the gods ? 

A. Not very remote from the present era ; for in the 
time of Laomedon the father of Priam, appeared all the 



FIFTH EPOCHA. 19 

illustrious personages concerned in the golden fleece ; — 
Jason, Hercules, Orpheus, Castor, he. And in the 
age of Priam, Achilles, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Hector, 
Ulysses, Diomedes, Sarpedon, and ^neas the son of 
Venus, whom the Romans acknowledged to be their 
father and founder. 

Q. This appears to have been the most illustrious pe- 
riod of heroic times j what are the events recorded in ho- 
ly writ ? 

A. They were, during this period, still more remark- 
able. The extraordinary strength of Sampson ; his 
astonishing exploits ; the administration of Eli, of Samu- 
el the chosen prophet ; of Saul the first king of Israel ; 
his victories, presumption, and unhappy fall, are events 
Avhich took place about this time. Saul's death was in 
the year of the world 2949. 

Q. Was there any change in the government of 
Athens, during the period of v/hich we have been 
speaking ? 

A. Yes ; Codrus, king of Athens, devoted himself 
to death for the safety of his country, and his sons, Me- 
don and Nileus, contending respecting the succession, 
the Athenians abolished the regal power, and created 
perpetual governors or magistrates for life. 

Q. Who succeeded Saul in the kingdom of Israel ? 
A. David. He proved an illustrious and fortunate 
prince ; he greatly enlarged hisdoniinions, and advanc- 
ed the Israelites to a degree of wealth and power not 
before known. 

Q. .When was Ionia settled, and by whom ? 
A. During the reign of Saul in Israel, sceral Atheni- 
an colonies settled there. The settlement of the ^oli- 
an colonies took place about the same time. 

Q. Who succeeded David in the throne of Israel ? 



20 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. His son Solomon ; famed for his wisdom, justice, 
and pacific virtues. Kis hands unpolluted with blood, 
were declared worthy to raise a temple to the Most 
High. 

Q. Where did Solomon lay the foundation of the 
temple, and when ? 

A. At Jerusalem, in the 480th year after the depar- 
ture out of Eg^ypt, 172 years after the destruction of 
Troy, and C60 years before the building of Rome ; in 
the year of the world 2993. 



SIXTH EPOCHA. 



THE TEMPLE. 

Q. Did the kingdom of Israel continue united aft6r 
Solomon's death ? 

A. No ; under his son Rehoboam Israel was divided 
into two kingdoms ; one, for distinction, was called the 
kingdom of Israel, and consisted of the t«n tribes who 
associated under Jeroboam; the other, the kingdom of Ju- 
dah, and was composed of such as adhered to the house 
of David. 

Q, Who was Shishak of the scriptures, mentioned 
as having been made an instrument to punish the impie- 
ties of Rehoboam ? 

A. He is supposed to have been Sesostris king of 
Egypt, who, in profane history, is much famed for his 
conquests. 

Q. Who succeeded Rehoboam in the hause of Judah, 
and when ? 

A. His son Abijah, in the year of the world 3046 j 



SIXTH EPOCHA. 21 

who, during his reign, obtained a memorable victory 
over the revolted tribes. 

Q. By whom was Samaria built, and when ? 

A. By Omri, king of Israel, in the time of Asa, the 
successor of Abijah in the house of Judah, and in the 
year of the world, 3080. From this time it became the 
capital of the kingdom. 

Q. Who were the successors of these princes ? 

A. In Judah, the pious reign of Jehosophat succeed- 
ed ; and an Israel, the idolatry and impieties of Ahab 
and Jezebel. 

Q. What new settlements were made about this time ?' 

A. Dido, a Tyrian princess, transported a colony into 
Africa, and laid the foundations of Carthage. Soon after 
this, Judah and Israel became the scene of extraordinary 
revolutions and wonders. 

Q. What was the cause ? 

A. Jehoram, by marrying the daughter of Ahab, was 
seduced into the idolatry of that wicked family, and drew 
down upon himself the punishments of heaven. Jehu took 
possession of the throne of Israel, and destroyed the whole 
posterity of Ahab. Jehoram king of Judah, and his son 
Ahaziah, with the greatest part of the royal family, were 
all slain about the same time, as allies of the house of 
Ahab. Atluiliah resolving, upon receiving this inform^a- 
tion, to extinguish the house of David, put to death all 
that remained of that family, not excepting her own 
children, and usurped the crown of Judah. 

Q. Did she long retain this usurped authority ? 

A. No ; Joash, who vvas preserved by the care of 
Jchosheba his aunt, and brought up in the temple un- 
der Jehoiada the high priest, in six years, put an end to 
^he usurpation and life of Athaliah. 

Q. What other events are mentioned in scripture ? 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. During this time, Elijah and Elisha w-;re working 
those wonders and miracles in Israel, wliich have made 
their names so eminent in holy v/rit. 

Q. To what period of time do these events bring us? 

A. To about 3 1 20 years after the creation. 

Q. You have mentioned, some time back, that Greece 
was divided mto several independent states : were they 
alike distinguished for their valour ? 

A. No ; the political importance of them all, was for 
the most part relative, a!>d depended, especially in the 
latter and more celebrated periods of their history, up- 
on their connexion with Athens and Lacedemon. 

Q. Which of these first became emment ? 

A. Lacedemon. 

Q. How ? 

A. By the wise and virtuous laws of Lycurgus. 

Q. When did he flourish ? 

A. In the year of the v/'orld, 3120, and before Christ 
884 years. 

Q. What were the prominent features of Lycurgus* 
laws ? 

A. He allotted to every family an equal share of lands, 
prohibited the use of gold and silver, and made iron mo- 
ney alone current, in order to check the avarice of his 
subjects. 

Q. What other regulations did he establish? 

A. He forbade foreign travel, lest the morals of his 
people should become corrupted, by an intercourse with 
effeminate nations. He established public tables, at 
which even the kings of Sparta, were required to share 
the coarsest viands with their people, and to set exam- 
ples of the most rigid temperance. 

Q. In what manner v/ere the Spartan children edu- 
cated ? 



SIXTH EPOCHA. 2S 

A. They were considered as the property of the stt te, 
knd their education consisted in accustoming them to 
bear the cravings of hunger and thirst, and to endure the 
scourge of discipline, and every degree of pain, with pa- 
tience, and even exultation. 

Q. What effect had this system of education upon the 
Spartan youth ? 

A. Their passions became inflamed with patriotic ar- 
dour, and their bodies hardened by constant exercise, so 
that they were eager to undertake, and powerful to ac- 
complish, every exploit for the glory of their country. 

Q. Did not Lycurgus extend liis regulations to cir ' 
cumstances, which are not supposed to come within the 
limits of legal restrictions? 

A. Yes ; he prescribed rules of the most rigid abstemi- 
ousness ; inculcated respect to old age ; enjoined modes- 
ty of behaviour ; and promoted the constant intercourse 
of the old and young. 

Q. Did Joash, who was so miraculously brought to 
the throne of Judah, rule the people with wisdom and 
justice ? 

A. Yes, during the life of Jehoiada; but after his death, 
he became a tyrant. He ordered Zachariah the high 
priest, son of his benefactor, to be stoned to death. 

Q. Was not this act of perfidy and ingratitude fol- 
lowed by a signal punishment ? 

A. Yes ; the year following, being beaten by the Syri- 
ans, he fell into contempt, and was slain by his own ser- 
vants. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Amaziah. 

Q. Did the kingdom of Israel, which had been weak- 
ened under the successors of Jehu, by wars with tt^ 
kings of Damascus, continue to be reduced ? 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. No ; it began to revive and flourish under the "vvise 
and vigorous administration of Jeroboam the second, 
who exceeded in piety and valour those that had gone 
before him. 

Q. Who succeeded Amaziah ? 

A. Azariah, who acquired equal glory in Judah. 

Q. At what time did this take place ? 

A. In the year of the world [3 1 94. 

Q. When did the computation of the Olympiads com- 
mence ? 

A. In the 3 4th year of Azariah's reign, and of the 
world 3228. 

Q. What was the occasion of this era being particu- 
larly noted ? 

A. It is celebrated in history, not only as being the 
great Epocha of the Greeks, but here, according to Var- 
ro, the fabulous times end. 

Q. Why are they called fabulous ? 

A. On account of the many fables, which the poets 
have interwoven with the transactions they describe. 

Q. Explain more fully the Olympiads. ^ 

A. The Olympiad was a space of four years, at the ex- 
pimtion of which, the Olympiad games were celebrated 
with great pomp, near the city of Olympia, in Pelopon- 
nesus. 

Q. You have mentioned Varro, what was his distribu- 
tion of time ? 

A. He divided the whole series of time into three pe- 
riods. The first, he extended from the creation of the 
world, to the deluge, v/hich he called the unknown age ; 
there being nothing in profane history relating to that 
time, which has any appearance of truth. The second 
period extended from the deluge to the first Olympiad, 
which he syled the fabulous. The third and last peri- 
od, bcgiar.ing with the first Olympaid, was carried to 



SIXTH EPOCHA. 25 

the age in which the author lived, and may be extend- 
ed to the present times. This he stiled the historical 
period, because the transactions of mankind are hand- 
ed down to us by faithful and authentic relations ; so 
that the Olympiads, while they constitute the great 
Epocha of the Greeks, are, at the same time, to be con- 
sidered as the true era of history. 

Q. Do these observations respect any other transac- 
tions besides those of the heathen world ? 

A. No ; holy writ furnishes a true and authentic ac- 
count of the affairs of the chosen people, from the times 
of Abraham, the founder of the Jewish nation, and have 
traced them back in a summary way, to the first forma- 
tion of the world. 

Q. To return from this digression, what was the state 
of Israel ? 

A. It was torn by intestine divisions. Shallum, the 
son of Jeroboam, had slain Zacariah, and usurped the 
crown, which inspired Menahem with hopes of gratify- 
ing his ambition in the same way ; he therefore conspi- 
red against the usurper, and served him as he had done 
his lawful prince. 

Q. To what period do these events bring us ? 

A. To the year of the world 3233, and before Christ 
771 years. 

Q. Who succeeded Azariah in the kingdom of Ju- 
dah ? 

A. He was succeeded by his son Jotham, who proved 
a pious and wise prince- 

Q. Who was king of Assyria at this time ? 

A. Pul, who taking advantc.t;e of the present state of 
Israel, advanced against it with an army ; but Menahem 
pacificed him, by paying him a thousand talents. 

Q. Who was the successor of Pul hi the Assyrian 
monarchy ? 

C 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. Sardaiiapalus, who is supposed to have been the 
son of Ful. 

Q. You informed me some time back, that the Athe- 
nians, upon their abolishing the regal power, created per- 
petual governors or magistrates. Did these governoi's 
continue to retain their office for life ? 

A. No ; during the reign of Sardanapalus in Assyria, 
the Athenians, whose disposition insensibly led them 
to a popular government, retrenched the power of these 
magistrates, and limited their administration to ten 
years. Charops was the first who held this dignity under 
these restrictions. 

Q. Let me now turn your attention to Italy. What 
are the first authentic accounts we have of that coun- 
try ? 

A. After the destruction of Troy, jEneas gathered the 
few remains of his unhappy countrymen, and sailed for 
Italy, where he married the daughter of king Latinus, 
and, succeeding him in the throne, left it to his poste- 
rity. 

Q. How long did this race of kings hold the sove- 
reignty ? 

A. For more than 300 years. 

Q. When was the first remarkable revolution ? 

A. In the time of Numiter and Amulius : Amulius 
seizing the crown to the prejudice of his elder brother 
Numiter, remained possessed of it until Romulus and 
Remus (the sons of Ilia, Numiter's daughter) arrived at 
manhood, when they restored their grandfather to his 
inheritance, and slew the usurper. 

Q. What important event followed this revolution ? 

A. The building of Rome. This era is particularly 
distinguished in history, as being preferred to every 
other, in regulating the accounts of the western and 
European nations. 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. 27 

Q. Inform me when it took place ? 

A. The building of Rome, according to Varro, com- 
menced in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, 430 
years after the destruction of Troy, 752 before the 
Christian era, and, in the year of the world, 3252. 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. 



THE BUILDING OF ROME. 



Q. Was not the building of Rome followed by an 
event of equal note in the eastern chronology ? 

A. Yes ; the downfal of the Assyrian monarchy took 
place about six years afterwards. 

Q. How? 

A. Principally through the effeminacy of Sardana^ 
palus, who, neglecting the administration of public afr 
fedrs, and giving himself up to pleasure, fell into (con- 
tempt with his subjects. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Arbaces governor of Media, and Belesis governor 
of Babylon, conspired against him ; and, beseiging him 
in his capital, reduced him to the necessity of perishing 
in the flames of his own palace. 

Q. What effect had this upon the eastern chrono- 
logy ? 

A. From the beginning of the reign of Belesis at 
Babylon, which is the same with Nabonassar, the fam.ous 
astronomical era commenced, called the era of Nabo- 
nassar. 

Q. Why is this era noted ? 

A. It is a sure guide in respect to tlie eastern chrono- 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

logy, and a:5 it commfences several years before the 

Babylonish captivity, by which the course of the Jewish 

l-istoiy h interrupted, it enables us here to take up the 

series, and to continue down the account of time with 

certainty, to the beginning of the Cliristian era. 

Q. What does the first year of Nabonassar coincide 

with ? 

A. With the seventh year of Rome, the second of the 

eighth Olympiad, and the 7'iGth before Christ. 

Q. To return to the children of Israel ; who succeed- 
ed Jotbam in the kingdom of Judah ? 

A. Ilis son Ahaz, v»4io being attacked by Resin king 
of Syria, and Pekah king of Israel, applied to Tiglath 
Pileser king of Assyria, from whom he readily obtained 
assistance. 

Q. Who was this Tiglath Pileser ? 

A. He is supposed to have been one of the royal family 
of ALSsyria, who taking advantage of the confusion which 
was occasioned from the dissolution of the Assyrian 
monarchy, and the division of it between Arbaces and 
Belesis, put himself at the head of those who still adher- 
ed to the house of Ful ; and getting possession of 
Nineveh, established a third empire for himself, while 
they were employed in settling themselves in the pro- 
vinces which they had respectively governed under the 
fj' mer monarch : thus a second Assyrian empire rose 
out of the ruins of the first, of which Nineveh, as before, 
remained the capital. 

Q. You have mentioned Tiglath Fileser's coming to 
the assistance of Ahaz ; v.hat conq\iests did he effect ? 

A. He took Damascus, and wholly destroyed the king- 
dom of Syria, which he united to his own ; he also great- 
ly distress c:l the kingdom of Israel, and even ravaged 
the territories of his friend and allv Ahaz. 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. 29 

Q. Who succeeded Tiglath Pileser,in the kingdom of 
Assyria ? 

A. His son Salmaneser. 

Q. Did he continue hostile to the kingdom of Israel ? 

A. Yes, he wholly subdued it, threw Hosea the king 
into prison, and carried the people into captivity. 

Q. When was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3283, and before Christ, 
721. 

Q. What other occurrences took place about this 
time ? 

A. Romulus, the first king of Rome, reigned 37 years. 
He had been much engaged in wars, but alv.ays return- 
ed from them victorious. Having paid particular atten- 
tion to the civil and religious establishments of his new 
colony, and laid the foundation of those laws and insti- 
tutions, which contributed so much to the advancement 
of the Roman Empire ; he v/as succeeded by Numa, 
who, in a long unhiterrupted peace, embraced the op- 
portunity of finishing the work of his predecessor, by 
softening the manners of the people, and bringing their 
religion into an exact form. 

Q. To what period does this carry us ? 

A. To the year of the world 3290 ; about which time, 
' several colonies from Corinth and other parts of Greece, 
built Syracuse, in Sicily, and Crotona and Tarentum, in 
the south of Italy. 

Q. What change took place in the kingdom of Judah ? 

A. Hezekiah succeeded Ahaz in that kingdom, and 
was renowned for his piety and justice. He was mira- 
culously recovered from a fit of sickness, and delivered 
from the menaces of Sennacherib king of Syria. But 
his son Manasseh, deviating from his pious steps, was 
sold into the hands of Esarhaddon, the successor of 
Sennacherib. 

C 2 



so AN'CIENT HISTORY. 

Q. Wliat was the character of this prince ? 

A. He was wise and politic ; he reunited the kingdom 
of Babylon to that of Nineveh, and by his numerous con- 
quests, equalled, in extent of dominion, the ancient Assy- 
rian monarchs. 

Q. What was the situation of the-Medes, during these 
conquests of Esarhaddon ? 

A. They began to render themselves respectable, un- 
der the wiae administration of Deioces their first king. 
He had been raised to the throne on account of his adhe- 
rence to virtue. He terminated the disorders occasi- 
oned from the anarchy into which his country had been 
throvvn, and laid the foundation of a powerful empire. 
The city of Ecbatana v/as also built by him. 

Q. Who succeeded Numa in the kingdom, of Rome ? 

• A. Tuiius Hostilius, under whose reign, and in the 

Sod year of the city, happened the famous combat of 

the Horatii and Curiatii ; by which Alba was sulijected, 

and its citizens incorporated v,'ith the victorious Romans. 

Q. What was the state of Egypt at this time ? 

A. Psammitichus nov/ reigned in Egypt. It had be- 
fore been divided into twelve parts, and was governed by 
an equal number cf princes ; but Psammitichus, v/ho 
^vas one of them, having been expelled by the jealousy 
of the rest, collected an army, dethroned the eleven con- 
federate princes, and seized upon the whole kingdom. 
The lonians aided hirn in the revolution, for which he 
granted them an establishment in Egypt, hitherto inac- 
cessible to strangers. This circum.stance established a 
commerce with the Grecians, which was afterwards kept 
up, and is considered the era of true Egyptian history ; 
all that went before, having been so darkened by fables 
and the invention of the Priests, as to be worthy of very 
Httle credit. 

Q. To what period of time does this bring us ? 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. SI 

A. To the year of thcworld 3348. 

Q. Who succeeded Deiocea in Media ? 

A. Phraortes, who, after a reign of 22 years, left the 
kingdom to his son Cyaxares. The Scythians, in Cyax- 
ares's reign, dispossessed him of all upper Asia, and 
held it 28 years. 

Q. What has been the situation of Judah since you 
last adverted to it ? 

A. Anion succeeded Manasseh, and after a short 
reign, left the kingdom to his son Josiah ; who proved a 
pious prince and thoroughly reformed the Jewish state. 

Q. Did Rome continue to flourish ? 

A. Yes ; by the apparently wise establishment of in- 
corporating the conquered nations, she increased in the 
number of her citizens, and in power ; but this was, at 
length, one of the causes of her downfal. Ancus Mar- 
tins, her fourth king, now reigned. 

Q. You have mentioned some time since, that Baby- 
Ion had been revinited to Nineveh ; how long did it con- 
tinue so ? 

A. Until the reign of Chiniladen, who proving an 
effeminate prince, Nabopollasser, general of his armies 
against Cyaxares the Mede, rebelled against him ; and 
joining with Astyages the son of Cyaxares, took Nine- 
veh and slew his master; after which, to gratify the 
Medes, he utterly destroyed that ancient city ; and from 
this time, Babylon became the metropolis of the Assy- 
rian empire ? 

Q. Who succeeded Nabopollasser in the Assyrian 
empire, and when ? 

A. His son Nebuchadnezzar, in the year of the world, 
3397. 

Q. What is his character ? 

A. He is much famed in history for his conquests, 
both in the east and the west ; he raised Babylon to be the 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

metropolis of the world. Jerusalem was taken by hira 
three several times, and at last totally destroyed ; and 
the people of Judah were led into bondage by the con- 
queror. 

Q. This, I suppose, was the Babylonish captivity of 
'seventy years, so often mentioned in the writings of the 
prophets ? 

A. It was. 

Q. Let me turn your attention to Greece : inform me 
in what particulars Athens exceeded Sparta ? 

A. A frdrer order of civil polity was displayed in the 
constitution of Athens ; a constitution, which furnished, 
not only a model for the laws of Rome, but for most of 
the nations of Europe. It was a regular system of ju- 
risprudence, extending to every class of citizens. 

Q. By whom were these improvements introduced, 
which formed tlie peculiar merit of the Athenian go- 
vernment, and when ? 

A. By Solon, in the year of the world 3410. 

Q. State the outlines of his administration ? 

A. He vested the sovereign power in the general as- 
sembly of the people, which was composed of fi-ee 
men, whose age exceeded thirty ; but m order to obvi- 
ate the evils, which a pure and unmixed democracy must 
have produced, when vested with an absolute and uncon- 
troled authority, he established a balance of power in 
the council of five hundred. The members of this 
council, were appointed annually by lot; they were 
obliged to possess certain legal qualifications ; and to 
stand the test of a severe scrutiny into their moral 
character, before they were invested with their liigh 
office . 

Q. What was the province of the council of five hun- 
dred? 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. 33 

A. They had the direction of all political concerns, 
and prepared business for the assembly of the people, 
to whom no measure was proposed without their previ- 
ous sanction. 

Q. What other measures did he take for the benefit 
of the people ? 

A. H* restored the court of Areopagus, so much ce- 
lebrated for the pure administration of justice, and the 
unsullied character of its members. 

Q. What powers v/ere the members of this court in* 
vested with ? 

A. They tried criminals for capital offences, inspect- 
ed the general behaviour of the citizens, superintended 
the conduct of youth, and took care that they were edu- 
cated in a manner suitable to their rank. 

Q. Had they not other privileges still more impor- 
tant? 

A. Yes ; they had the power of reversing the decrees 

of the popular assembly, of rescuing the condemned 

from their sentence ; and condemning the acquit- 
ted ? 

Q. What was the situation of Athens ? 

A. It naturally directed the attention of its inhabi- 
tants to commerce. The country, although fruitful in 
vines and olives, was not adequate to the support of its 
inhabitants, without the supply of foreign produce : this 
deficiency pointed out the sea, as the proper sphere for 
their exertions ; and, in time, they rose to the highest 
eminence as a commercial state. Their great inter- 
course with strangers, gave a particular direction to 
their laws, and promoted that urbanity of manners, by 
which they were so eminently distinguished. 

Q. Did not the different laws of Sparta and Athens, 
produce, in the course of time, a corresponding dilTer- 
ence of manners ? 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. Yes ; the performances of the theatre, the popu- 
lar assemblies, and the sacred festivals, employed the 
inhabitants of Athens ; while the Spartans, indulging 
in no amusement or relaxation, Vvcre incessantly busied 
in the exercise of war. The streets of Athens resound- 
ed with lively notes of music, and their songs were dic- 
tated by the tender passions of pity and love ; ftie poets 
of Sparta, rehearsed only the stern virtues of departed 
heroes, or roused her sons to martial exploits by the de- 
scription of battles, victory or death. In Athens, the 
sportive sallies of wit, and the gay images of fancy, 
gave a peculiar vivacity to social intercourse ; the se- 
riousness of a Spartan was manifested in his cautious re- 
serve, his grave deportment, and the peculiar concise- 
ness of his sharp and pointed repartee. The virtues of a 
Spartan were gloomy and austere j while the dissipa 
tion of an Athenian was engaging and agreeable. The 
one was an illiterate soldier, whose character was form- 
ed by martial discipline alone j the other was a man of 
genius, of taste, and of letters, who enjoyed the advan- 
tages of refinement and knowledge. 

Q. This digression has carried you a little beyond the 
period we have been contemplating. Return to the 
reign of Psammitichus in Egypt. Who succeeded him, 
and when ? 
* A. His son Nechus, in the year of the world 3394. 

He is called in scripture, Pharaoh Necho. It was 
against him that Josiah, king of Judah, fought the battle 
in the valley of Megiddo ; where he received the fatal 
wound of which he died ? 

Q. By whom was Nechus succeeded ? 

A. By Psammis, who left the kingdom to his son 
Apries, the Pharaoh Hophra of the bible, against whom 
so many prophecies are directed. The first year of 
Apries was the last of Cyaxares, king of the Medes, who^ 



" SEVENTH EPOCHA. 35 

after a reign of forty years, was succeeded by his soa 
Astyagcs. 

Q. In what year was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3410. 

Q. Who reigned at this time in Rome ? 

A. Tarquinius Priscus. He subdued part of Tusca- 
ny ; and having adorned the city with many magnifi- 
cent works, left the throne to Servius TuUius. 

Q. What was the situation of Babylon ? 

A. Nebuchadnezzar having finished his expeditions, 
and enriched himself with the spoils of conquered na- 
tions, turned his attention to adorning the city, and rais- 
ing those stupendous works, of which we read with so 
much interest, in ancient history. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Evil Merodach, who, as soon as he was 
settled on the throne, released Jehoiachim, king of Ju- 
dah, out of prison, where he had been confined 37 
years ; but he afterwards rendered himself so odious, 
even to his own relations, that they conspired against 
him ; and he was slain after a short reign of two year§, 
by Neriglessar his sister's husband, who usurped the 
throne, in the year of the world, 3444. 

Q. W^ho succeeded Neriglessar ? 

A. His son Laborosoarchod, a brutal prince, who af- 
ter a reign of nine months, was put to death by his own 
subjects, in the year of the world 3449, and 555 before 
the Christian era. 

Q. How was the government settled ? 

A . Narbouid, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, and the 
Belshazzar of the scripture, having removed those who 
had murdered his father Evil Merodach, succeeded to 
the kingdom of Babylon. 

Q. What was the situation of Athens at this time ? 

A. Pisistratus, in the year of the world 3444, usurped 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

the sovereign authority at Athens ; and with his succes- 
sors, infringed the fair and e<juitable plan of government 
which had been estabHshed by Solon. The struggles of 
the Athenians for their rights, in succeeding times, con- 
spired, with other causes, to involve them in wars with 
the Persians. 

Q. What was the situation of the Medes ? 

A. They Avere increasing in power under Astyages ; 
which exciting the jealousy of Neriglessar king of Baby- 
Ion, he declared v, ar against them ; but before it termi- 
nated, Astyages died, and left the kingdom to his son Cy- 
axares, called by Daniel, Darius the Mede. The war 
with which he was threatened being very formidable, ho 
applied to Cambyses king of Persia, who had married 
his sister, for assistance. Cambyses sent a body of 
troops, and with them his son Cyrus, whom his uncle 
Cyaxares appointed general of his armies against the 
king of Babylon. 

Q. What was the character of Cyrus ? 

A. He was a prince of extraordinary wisdom and 
courage. In his infancy, he resided in Persia with his 
father, where he received an education which qualified 
him to endure hardships, and the incidental fatigues and 
dangers of a military life. At twelve years of age he 
was sent into Media, by his grandfather Astyages, where 
he remained five years, and gained the love and respect 
of all that knew him, by his virtuous behaviour and ami- 
able manners. 

Q. W^hat was his conduct in this war ? 

A. It was glorious, and his success astonishing. Hav- 
ing, by his superior abilities in the art of war, vanquished 
the king of Babylon, and Croesus his ally, in battle, he 
pursued his advantage over Croesus, surrounded him in 
his capital, and got possession of his kingdom and im- 
mense riches. 



SEVENTH EPOCHA. 37 

Q. Who was Croesus ? 

A. He was king of Lydia, in Asia Minor, and was the 
most wealthy prince of his time. The capital of his 
kingdom was Sardis. 

Q. In what manner did Cyrus proceed ? 

A. He subdued, with equal expedition, the other allies^ 
of the king of Babylon ; made himself master of all Asia 
Minor, and extended his conquests into Syria. 

Q. Did he stop here ? 

A. No ; he marched against Babylon itself, made 
himself master of that powerful city, and of the whole 
Assyrian empire ; which he put under the dominion of 
his uncle Cyaxares. 

Q. How long did Cyaxares reign in Babylon ? 

A. He died within two years after his accession to the 
throne, as did also Cambyses, king of Persia ; at which 
time, Cyrus succeeded to the whole monarchy. Thus 
the empire of the east was transferred from the Assy- 
rians to the Medes and Persians ; but as Cyrus was a Per- 
sian, and all his successors, it has obtained the name of 
the Persian monarchy j Cyrus, and not Cyaxares, being 
reputed the founder. 

Q. To what period are we to fix the Persian empire 
under Cyrus ? 

A. 216 years after the building of Rome, 536 years 
before the birth of Christ, and in the year of the world 
3468. 



D 



ANCIENT ?IISTORY. 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 



REIGN OF CYRUS. 



Q. What was the first remarkable act of Cyrus, upoii 
his accession to the throne ? 

A. In the first year of his reign, he pubUshccl the fa- 
mous decree for rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem ; 
the seventy years captivity being now completed, as 
foretold by the prophet ? 

Q. Who governed the Roman empire at this time ? 

A. Servius Tullius still reigned at Rome } he had 
greatly enlarged the city, and by his mild and popular 
administration, had become the peculiar favourite of his 
subjects : but this excellent prince, at last fell a sacrifice 
to the perfidy of his own daughter, and the ambitious de- 
signs of his son-in-law, Tarquin the Proud, who suc- 
ceeded him in the throne, in the year of the world 3470. 

Q. Is not Cyrus mentioned in sacred writ ? 

A. Yes J in the 41th and 45th chapter of Isaiah, he 
is mentioned by name, 220 years before he was born, 
and has the glorious titles bestowed upon him of God's 
Shepherd, and God's Anointed ; and, from the partiality 
he manifested towards the Jews, it appears he feared the 
God of Israel. 

Q. W^ho succeeded him ? 

A. 'lis son Cambyses, in the year of the world 34-75. 
Under him the Persians enlarged their empire by the 
conquest of Egypt. 

Q. What was his character ? 

A. He proved a orutal prince^ unworthy of filling the 



EIGHTH El'OCIIA. 39 

ihrone of Cyrus. He ordered his brother Smerdis to be 
killed privately, in consequence of a suspicious drciun 
-which disturbed his fancy. I?ut he did not long- sur\ivc 
iiim ; and upon his death, Snicrdis, ih- magician, usurp- 
ed the throne, under pretence of being Smerdis, the son 
of Cyrus. 

Q. Was not this deception soon discovered ? 

A. Yes ; and gave rise to the famous confederacy of 
the seven Noblemen ; the result of wliich nas, that Da- 
rius, the son of Hystexspes, Avas raised to the Pcrsiun 
throne, in the year of the world 5483. He is culled 
in scripture Ahasuerus. 

Q. You informed mc, some time back, that Pisis- 
tratus had usurped the sovereign authority at Athens ; 
when did they recover their liberty ? 

A. During tlic reign of Darius in Persia, Hamiodi- 
us and Aristoj/iton slew Hippcirchus, the son oi Pisis- 
tratus, and ol^liged his brother Hippias to fly into the 
domiiuoRs of Darius for protection. 

Q. What was the situation of Rome at tlils time ? 

A. About the time of this revolution at Athens, one 
of a similar nature occurred at Rome. Tarquin, by 
his violence and arbitrary measures, had rendered the 
royal power odious ; and the insult of his son Sextus, 
upon Lucretia, completed tlic public indignation. The 
people, animated by th.e sentiments and heroic beha- 
viour of Brutus, slicok off the regal tyranny, and de- 
clared themselves a free stat'j. 

Q. W^hcn did this take place ? 

A. In the ycirof the world 3494, and 244 years after 
the building of Rome. 

Q. Did Tarquin quietly subm.il to this expulsion ? 

A. No ; he drew in several neighbouring princes to 
vindicate his cause, amongst v>hom Porsenna, kirg of 
the Clusians, bore Jie most distinguished part. 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY*. 

Q. What v/as the conduct of the Romans ? 

A. It wcia upon this occasion, that they first hc^mi to 
discover, tiiut noble ardour for hberty, that inviolable 
love of thtii' country, which makes so distinguished a 
part cf the character of that renowned nation. 

Q. Did Poracnna persist in his defence of Tar- 
q'un. 

A. No ; struck witli the bravery of the Romans, he 
determhied no longer to interrupt them, in the enjoys 
ment of a liberty, to which their merit gave them so 
just a titl-j. 

Q. Rut were not the Roman:^, M'ho were invincible 
to a forei.:2;n force, in danger of being ruined by intes- 
tine divisions ? 

A. Yes ; the jealousy between the Patricians and Ple- 
beians rose so high, Ihatthe latter retired from the city, 
and entrenched themselves upon a hill, afterwards call- 
ed Mons Sacer. 

Q. Did these two coritcMu'ing panics enter into open 
hostiiid'js ? 

A. No; the mild persuasions of Ivlenenius Agrippa, 
and tlic concessions made by the Senate, in the admis- 
sion of riebcian magistrates, whcse cflice wi.s to pro- 
tect the people against the consuls, soRened their dis- 
contents, and restored tranquillity to the state. The 
law establishing the institution of these magistrates, 
was called the sacred law, and they had the liile of the 
Tribunes of the people. 

Q. When did this revolution happen ? 

A. In the 258th year of the city, and of the world, 
3510. 

Q. You informed me some time back that Ilip- 
pias, brother to the dethroned monarch of Athens, 
flew into Persia tor protection ; did he p:*cvail upon Da- 
rius to declare war against the Athenians : 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 41 

A. Yes ; and ]Mardoiiius Avas sent with a numerous 
arniy against them. 

Q. What v.as his success? 

A. MiUiadf s, \vith a handful of men, in the plains 
of Marathon, gave him battle, and totally routed his 
forces. 

Q. This victory, I recollect to have been much cele- 
brated in :.]icient history ; what v.as the comparative 
force of the two armies ? 

A. The Athenians did not exceed ten thoi.-sand, and 
the Persians have been computed at twenty times their 
numbc'.'. 

Q. When was this b,Utlc fcu-lit ? 

A. In the year of the world 35 14. . >■ 

Q. What was the situation of Home ? 

A. The spi'/it of discontent between the nobility and 
the people, which had in some measure been allayed, 
was by no means wholly suppressed. Coriolanus, a 
distir.j^uished senator arid c;cncral, who had rendered 
eminent services to the repubiic, was treated with great 
severity and inj.'iratitude, and was compelled to leave 
his country to save his life. 

Q. Did he passively submit to his bariishment ? 

A. iN^o ; of a haughty and indignant spirit, he resolv- 
ed upon revenge ; and v.ith this view, applied to the 
Volsciiuis the enemies of Home, and tendered them 
his services against his nalive country. The offer 
was cordially embraced; and Coriolanus v.as made 
general of the ^'olsci an army. 

Q. What v;ere his victories ? 

A. He recovered from the Romans, all the towns 
they htid taken from the \^oIsci ; carried by assault 
several cities in Latiura ; and led his troops within 
five miles of the city of Rome. After several unsuc- 

D2 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ccssful embassies from the Senate, all hope of pacifying 
the injured exile appeared extinguished, and the sole 
business of Rome, was to prepare v. ith tiie utmost dili- 
gence for sustaining a siege. 

Q. What was the conduct of the women upon this oc- 
casion ? 

A. Terrified by the impcndingdanger into anep;lcctof 
their usual decorum, they ran tuniultuously from th.cir 
houses to the temples. Every siuictuary, and particu- 
larly the t:;mple of Jupiter Capitolinus, resounded with 
the v/tiillnr^'s and loud supplications of women. 

Q. Wh.at followed ? 

A. In th.is j^eneral consternaUon and distress, Valeria, 
.AS if moved by a divine impulse, suddenly took her stand 
upon the top of the steps of the temple of Jupiter, and 
having assemljled the womcvj about her, confidently de- 
clared there was yet h.ope for the Republic ; that its pre- 
servation depended upon them, and upon their perform- 
ance cf the duty they owed their country ; buL it is not 
by the sword, nor by the strength cf the arm, that we are 
to prevail ; tliese belong not to our sex ; soft moving 
words must be our weapon and our force. Let us all, 
in our mourning ature, and accompanied by our chil- 
dren, entre;..t Vcturia, tlie mother of Coriolanus, to 
intercede with her son for our common safely. 

Q. Was this proposition agreed to ? 

A. Yes ; it was universally applauded, and tlie whole 
train of women took their waj- to Veturia's house ; where, 
by their urgent solicitations, they at length obttined 
the promise of Veturia to comply with their request. 

Q. In what manner did they proceed ? 

A. The next day, the most illustrious of the Roman 
women repaired to Veturia's house, wdiere, with Vetu- 
ria and Volumnia Coiiolanus's wife, they mounted a 
number of chariots, which had been ordered by the con- 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 4J3 

auls to be made ready for them, and, without a guard, 
took thtir way to the enemy's camp. Coriolanus, upon 
perceiving who they were, and conjecturing what views 
the Romans had in so extraordinary a deputation, re- 
solved, in liis ovrn mind, not to be moved ; but he reckon- 
ed upon a savage inflexibihty that was not in his nature : 
for, going out with a few attendants to receive the wo- 
men, he no s'^oner saw Veturia, attired in mournintr, 
her eyes bathed in tears, and Mith a countenance and 
motion that bespoke her sinking under a load of sorrow ; 
than he hastily ran to lier, and not only calling her mo- 
ther, but adding to that word the most tender epithets, 
embraced her, wept over her, and held her in his arms 
to prevent her falling. A like lenderntss he presently 
afterwards expressed to his wife, and then, with the 
warmest paternal affection, caressed his children. 

Q. How did Vetiiiia succeed ? 

A. After some time had been idlowed to those silent 
tears of joy, which often flow plentcously at the sudden 
and unexpected meeting of persons dear to each other ; 
Veturia^entercd upon the business she had undertaken, 
Mid in the most imi>res3ive language of entreaty, solicited 
her son to resi-n his commission as general, and to de- 
sist from the destruction of his country. Coriolanus 
made no attempt to interrupt her while speiiking, and 
when she had ceased, continued in deep silence. 
Anger, hatred, and desire of revenge, balanced in his 
heart, those softer passions, which tlie sight and discourse 
of his mother had awakened ip his breast. 

Q. What was the conduct of his mother ? 

A. P^crcciving his irresolution, she proceeded ; why 
dost thou not answer me, my son ? Is there then such 
greatness of mind in giving all to resentment .? Art thou 
ashamed to grant any thing to a mother, who thus en- 
treats thee, tlius humbles herself to thee ? If Uus be the 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

case, to what purpose should I longer tndurc a -Nvrctchcd 
life ? As she uttered these words, interrupted by sighs, 
she threw herself prostrate at his fe-t ; his wife and chil- 
dren did the sanrj ; and all the Avonien, with united 
voices of mournful accent, begLCti '^ri^^ implored his pity. 
The X'olscian officers, not iJ;Ie unmoved to behold this 
scene, turned awitv their eyes ; but Coriolanus, almost 
beside himself to see Vetuiia at his fert, passionately 
cried out, ah I mother, wb.ut art thou doinj^.'r and tenderly 
pressing her hand in raising her up, added, in a low 
voice, Home is suvtd, bnt thy son is lost. Karly next 
morning CoriokuHis broke up his camp, and peaceably 
marched liis army homeward. 

Q. Did Danus king; of Ferf ia live to cominuc llic v.ar 
against the Athenians ? 

A. >o ; ne was succeeded by Xerxes, who prepared 
to revenge the defeat at Marathon, by a new expctulion 
against C' recce, lie is said to have been followed in 
this aUempt, by an army of 1700,000 men. Leonidas, 
king of Sparta, uilh only 300 Lacedemonians, encoun- 
tered his whole force in the streights of 'I'hermopilrc. 
For three days he defended himself against tlie nume- 
rous army of the Persians ; but behig at lenj^th cur- 
rounded, he and his followers were ail slain upon the spot. 

Q. When was this? 

A. In the year of the v.orkl 3524. 

Q. Did Xerxes continue successful in his expedition ? 

A. No ; by the wise counsel of Themi-^tocles, the 
Athenian admiral, the naval army of the Persians -was 
the same year vanciuished near Salamis ; and Xerxes, 
in great fear, repassed the Hellespont, leavhig the 
command of his land forces to INkuxlonius. 

Q. What was the success of Mardonius ? 

A. lie was killed, and his whole army routed, near 
Plati:ca, by Pausanias; king of the Lacedemonians, and 



EIGHTH LPOCHA. 45 

A ri Slides, general of the Athenians. This battle was 
foui^ht in the moiT.ing ; and on the evenhig of the san\e 
day, the hv naval forces obtained a memorable victory 
over the remainder of the Persian fleet, 

Q. What was the effect of tliesc signal events ? 

A. They restored liberty to the fairest portion of 
Asia, where the Greek colonies were planted, and 
completely frustrated the dt^ij^ns of Xerxes to enslave 
the nations of Europe. 

Q. What was the state of Athens after this con- 
quest ? 

A. For half a century after the repulse of the armies 
of Darius and Xerxes, the Athenians maintained, with- 
out control, tl.c pre-eminence of pov/er. The fur- 
ther progress of the Ath.enians in extending their do- 
minion, was assisted by colonization and commerce. 
Th.cir navy rode the sea in triun^ph, and their mer- 
chants exchanged the superfluous productions of Attica, 
for the choicest fruits of diLtant couiUiies. The large 
:nd fertile Island of Euboea was numbered among 
their territories ; their domiiiion extended over the 
space of a thousand miles, from Cyprus to the Thraci- 
an Rosphorus, and over foity intermediate ish^nds. 
They planted colonies on the winding shores of iVIacc- 
don and Thrace, and commanded the coasts of the Eux- 
ine sea from Pontus to Crim Tartary. These trophies 
of naval pov>cr were erected, not over ignorant barbari- 
ans, but over men who had the same languac,e and laws, 
the same arts and lineage ; who had every thing with 
il.e victors, except skill in navigation, prudence in 
council, and prowess in the field. 

Q. What was the state of the arts and literature in 
(ircece ? 

A. The same spirit of competition, which roused the 
< Irrcian cities to contend for victory and renown, excited 



46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

tliem to a rivalry of tiilenls. As soon as the apprclicr.- 
sions of danger from the inroads of bafbarians were 
removed, they be>^iai to cultivate the arts of elegance ; 
and the defeat of the Pcrtian power, and the death of 
Alexander the Great, containing :*n intermediate space 
of 180 years, displayed the genius of Greece, shining in 
its brightest splendour. 

Q. Were not men of genius particularly encourag- 
ed ? 

A. Yes ; the name of the pointer and sculptor was 
celebrated in festivals ; their works were exhibited at 
public games ; and tliey were reputed to confer, by 
every specimen of their art, distinguished honour upon 
their country. The monuments of their talents reficct- 
cd lustre upon their c'.K'.ractcr, and gave it the highest 
/respectability; as it v as their noble pro>ince, to ex- 
press the likeness of heroes, and to emlx)dy the perfec- 
tions of their imaginary Gods. 

Q. Were not the most memorable events kept in 
view by these monuments of thicir ingenuity ? 

A. Yes; the arts called forth, by the most lively ima- 
Rfes, the crcat events and characters of history. l>crv 
public edifice in Athens was fdlcd with statues of warri- 
or^, legislators, philosophers, and orators. In one 
place stood ^lilti ides, frowning destruction on l^crsiu ; 
in another, the placid Socrates, the thoughtful Solon, 
and the empas'.ioned I")cmoi:.thencs. ICvcry street pre- 
sented an Athenim with some striking example of va- 
lour, wisdom, or patriotism : wherever he turned his 
eye ,'.e s. w some monument raised fo perpetuate the 
renown of his uncestors ; and tlic precious tribute of 
the arts, so literally paid to all persons of genius, 
courage and virtue, gave the keenest incitement to the 
display of every species of excellence. 

Q. Here indi:eJ is displayed a prospect highly inter- 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 47 

esuny to every cultivated miiul ; for we behold Greece 
when in her most flourishing state, adorned with litera- 
ture, arts and sciences. Does not the contrast with 
other nations, render the picture still more impres- 
sive ? 

A. Vcs ; for at a period when all surrounding nations 
were obscured by intellectual darkness, and were bar- 
barous and unpolished ; her sons unfolded the full pow- 
ers of their transcendant genius. Their active mtelkct, 
not enervated by tiic luxuries of refinement, nor dis- 
tracted by a multiplicity of objects, exerted itself with 
ardour, followed up many of its inventions with peree- 
verance, and soared to the most astonishing heights of 
the beautiful and the sublime. 

Q. Were they not originally indebted to foreign 
countries for the arts and sciences? 

A. Yes; toother countries they were doubtless in- 
debted for some iiide and imperfect essays of art, sci- 
ence and philosophy ; but it was their peculiiir glory to 
shape them into beauty, and methodise them into sys- 
tem ? 

Q. This interesting digression, has canied you be- 
yond the usual limits, and has unavoidably anticipated 
some events which had not taken place, when jrou en- 
tered upon this subject: return to tlic reign of Xerxes, 
king of Persia. Who succeeded him, and when ? 

A. He was succeeded by Artaxerxes Longimanus, in 
the year of the world 3540. It is generally supposed, 
that from him, Nehemiali received tlic commission to 
restore and rebuild Jenisalem. 

Q. What was the situation of Rome ? 

A. The distinguished character which Greece bor» 
amongst the nations, determined the Romans to form a 
•chcmc of laws upon their model ; and with tliis view, 
deputies were sent to cxuujinc tlic coa^titutions of tlic 



48 A'NCIENT HISTORY. 

several Greek cities, and parlicultiily th^it of Atheub. 
Ten mai^i St rates Avere elected, in the year of the 
■world 33 54, \vith absolute authority to carry this de- 
sign into execution. 

Q. What was their success ? 

A. They composed a body of lavrs, digested into 
twelve tables, which were proposed to the people, and 
received their approbation. But the Decemvli^s, after 
having finished their business, found too many charms 
in authority to readily resign it ; and vainly attempted 
to entail slavery upon a state, whose predominant pas- 
sion was the love of liberty i but the Romans, disdain- 
ing to submit to their oppressors, abolished the Deceiu- 
rirs, and restored the authority of the consuls. 

Q. When did the Pei'sians wholly decline hostilities 
with Greece ? 

A. About this time, Cimon, the Athenian general, 
having obtained miuiy victories over the Persians ; Ar- 
taxerxes signed a treaty of peace, highly to the ho- 
nour and advantage of Greece ? 

Q. What other scheme of politics did he pursue ? 

A. He endeavoured to'weaken their force, by foment- 
ing intestine divisions. 

Q. Did any thing of this kind take place ? 

A. Yes ; m the year of the world 3573, a war broke 
out between the Athenians and Lacedemonians, and 
is known by the name of the Peloponnesian war. It last- 
ed twenty-seven years, and at length terminated in the 
taking of Athens by Lysander, who had drawn into the 
party of the Lacedemonians, Darius NotJius, son and 
successor of Artaxerxes. 

Q. Did not the Persians become sensible of their 
error in making the Lacedemonians thus powerful ? 

A. Yes ; that ambitious republic, having now no rival 
to fear, began to extend its view to Asia ; and promoted 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 49 

the expcdilion of young Cyrus against his brother Ar- 
taxcrxcs Mnemon, who had succeeded Darius Nothus, 
in the year of the world 3603. 
Q. Did Cyrus succeed ? 

A. No ; he fell in battle by his own rashness, and 
left ten thousand Greeks, who had served under him, 
exposed to all the dangers of war, in an unknown regi- 
on, several hundred miles from their native country, 
iind surrounded on every side with numerous armies ; 
but they effected an honourable retreat, which has been 
celebrated by Xenophon, the disciple of Socrates, who 
himself conducted it ; and who was the gi'catcst com- 
mander and philosopher of his time. 

Q. \Miat other characters distinguish.cd themselves 
in Ci:ecce during the Peloponnesian war I 

A. IVriclcs, Alcibiadcs, Thrasybuliis, Colon, l3ras;- 
des, and Lysander. 

Q. And what was the state of Rome ? 

A. She was rendering herself formidable to all the 
nations round her. \'eii, one of the strongest and most 
opulent cities in Italy, was taken by Camillus, after a 
biegc of ten years. Hut soon after this, Rome was redu- 
ced to the greatest extremity. 

Q. By what means ? 

A. By the irruption of the Gauls, who defeated the Ro- 
man army, and advancing against the city, laid it in ashes. 
Such of the senators iuul nobles as chose to survive the 
ruin of their country, retired into thecapitol with Man- 
lius, where they resolutely defended themselves, un- 
til relieved by Camillus, whose bravery restored Rome 
again, to her former splendour ? 

Q. In Mhat year did the Gauls destroy tJie city of 
Rome •*"* 

r 



50 ANCIENT HSITORY. 

A. In the 363d year after it had been founded bv 
Romuhis, and in the year of the world 3615. 

Q. Did the Lacedemonian power in Greece continue 
to predominate ? 

A. No; it bet^an to decline; and Thebes, which 
had hitherto made no figme in the history of nations, 
raised herself to the highest pitch of glory, by the wis- 
dom and valour of F.paminondas. 

Q. What was the cliaracter of this general ? 

A. The most illustrious of antiquity. He possessed 
in an eminent degree, all the virtues necessary in a 
warrior and a statesman ; nor was he less distinguished 
as a philosopher. No Thcban ever equalled him in 
knowledge and eloquence. 

Q. Did Thebes retain her power, after the death of 
^^his great personage ? 

A. No ; she fell again into her former degree of in- 
significancy, and yielded to the sceptre of Sparta. 

Q. Was not Greece at this time in a much less flou- 
rishing state than formerly ? 

A. Yes ; she was about submitting to a new power, 
M'hich, beginning in Philip, rose to the dominion of all 
Asia. 

Q. Who was Philip ? 

A. lie was king of Macedon, and had betn brought 
up under Epaminondas. He was of an enterprising gcni^ 
us, and gave early proofs of an unbounded ambition. 

■Q. Did not this spirit of enterprise and ambition ex- 
cite the jealousy of the neighbouring powers ? 

A. Yes ; and created their united exertions to oppose 
his growing greatness. But although Oclius and his son 
Arses, kings of Persia, did their utmost to thwart his de- 
signs ; although the Athenians, roused by the eloquence 
of Demosthenes, drew into a confederacy almost the 
vhole of Greece against him ; yet he triumphed ovei* 



EIGHTH EPOCHA. 51 

every difficulty ; and the victory of Choronea rendered 
him absolute in all the Grecian states. 

Q. At what time did this take place ? 

A. In the year of the world 3665. 

Q. Did he make any other conquests ? 

A. No ; he was forming the plan of an expedition into 
ihe east, and projected the total overthrow of the Persi- 
an empire ; but an untimely death hurried him out of 
the world, in the year 3668. He was succeeded by his; 
son Alexander, surnamcd the Great. 

Q. What was the character of this prince ? 

A. lie gave proofs from his earliest years, of a hero- 
ic spirit, that appeared destined for the conquest of 
nations. 

Q. Who reigned now in Persia i^ 

A. About this time Darius Codomaimus ascended the 
throne, who, in a private station, had distinguished him- 
self by his valour and prudence. 

Q. Did he successfully defend himself against his 
powerful rival ? 

A. No ; Alexander having settled the affairs of Greece, 
over-ran all Asia Minor with astonishing rapidity, defeat- 
ed Darius in three pitched battles, and upon the death oi 
that prince, who was treacherously slain by Bessus, be- 
came sole monarch of the cast ; at v.hich time the 
Persian empire ended. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The commencement of the Macedonian or Greci- 
an empire. yMcxander pursuing his victories, and be- 
coming master of almost all the provinces of the cast, 
became the founder of the third or Macedonian Em- 
pire. 

Q. When did this take place ? 

A. 422 years after the building of Rome, 330 before 
fhc birtJi of Christ, and in the year of the world 3674. 



5^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 



NIXTil EPOCHS 



GIJECIAN' EMPIRE. 



Q. In what manner were the Romans employed at 
this time ? 

A. They were engaged m a tedious war with the 
Samnites : but at length subdued them by the intrepi- 
dity and judgment of Papirius Cursor, one of the great- 
est generals of his time. 

Q. What was the further progress of Alexander ? 

A. He continued his con(|uests,and penetrated as far 
as India ; but returning to Babylon, he died there, in the. 
33d year of his age, and of the world, 3631. 

Q. What became of his empire after his death ? 

A. It was variously divided amongst his followers, 
Perdiccas, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, Antigonus, 
Selcucus, Lysimachus, Antipater, and his son Cassan- 
dcr, Avho had been commanders under this great con- 
queror, and having learned from him the art of war, 
formed a design of rendeimg themselves masters of the 
several provinces, over which they were constituted 
governors. 

Q. Was the family of Alexander respected ? 

A. No ; they were ^^hol]y destroyed, liis brother, 
iiis mother, hisv.ivcs, his children , and even his sisters, 
vterc sacrificed to the ambition of these new monarchs. 
* Q. What were the principal moriarchics that arose 
upon this occasion ? 

A. Egypt, founded by Plolemy ; 'and Asia or Syria, 



NINTH EPOCHA. 53 

founded by Sclcucus .- each of which continued pcrma- 
Ticnt, and was inherited by their posterity for many years 
^.fterwards. 

Q. And did the East remain subject to Greece ? 

A. Yes ; and received its language and customs ; and 
although it was not under the dominion of one prince, 
as formerly, yet the Greeks universally governing in the 
several principalities into which it was divided, gave oc- 
casion for historians to term the period we are speaking 
of, the Grecian or Macedonian empire. 

Q. What was the situation of Greece during these 
changes in tl^.e east ? 

A. It was marked with a continued succession of revo- 
lutions. Cassander, Pyrrhus king of Kpirus, Deme- 
trius Polioccrtes, Lysimachus imd Scleucus, reiv^ned 
successively in Macedonia ; each establishing himself 
by the expulsion of his pixideccssors. 

Q. What was the state of the Romans ? 

A. They were extending their conquests in Italyj: 
having subdued the Samnites, Brutians and lietrurians, 
they threatened Tj-rentum with the same yoke. The 
Tarentines finding themselves too weak to resist that 
powerful republic, applied to Pyrrhus king of Epirus 
for assistance, wl>o obtained two successive victories 
over the Romans; but in the end they were beaten by con- 
Mil Cuiius, and forced to abandon Italy. 

Q. W^hen was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3732, 

Q. When did Antigonus Gonatus get possession of 
the throne of Macedonia ? 

A. About this time, and left it to his posterity ; but 
met wUh great opposition from Pyrrhus, who at length 
\vas killed, at Argos, by a tile thrown from a house-top. 

Q. When did the Acheon league take place in Greece, 
end what was the object of it ? 

K 3 



54 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. It took place during this period, and was projected 
by Aratiis. It was a confederacy of several powerful 
cities of Peloponnesus, and the neighbouring territories, 
in defence of liberty ; and was the last cfPort made by 
the Greeks to maintain their independence and freedom. 

Q. Did the Romans, after the departr.re of Pyrrhus, 
find any power in Italy able to oppose them ? 

A. No ; they became masters of the whole country, 
fi'om the farthest part of Hetruria to the Ionian sea, and 
from the Tusccm sea to the Adriatic. In the Carthat;!- 
nians alone, they found their most formidable enemy. 
This repubUc, winch was founded by Dido, and which, 
as far back as the reign of Xerxes, was considerable for 
wealth and extent of territory, had, at this time, extend- 
ed her dominioiis.to both sides of the Mediterranean. 

Q. What settlements had the Carthaginians made, 
besides those on the African coast ? 

A. They had made several conquests in Spain ; had 
settled in Corsica and Saixlinia ; and possessed several 
towns in Sicily. 

Q. Did you say they were a wealthy nation ? 

A. Yes ; they had acquired immense wealth by com- 
merce, and the sovereignty of the seas, which no nation 
at this time could dispute A\ith them. This led the 
Romans to consider them as a formidable rival, which, 
if not checked, might grow to a power too mighty even 
for Italy itself: hence tlic ori;^in of the several Piuiic 
wars, the first of v/hich commeticed in the 489th year 
of tlie city, and of the world, 3740. 

Q. What wasti.is war considered remarkable for ? 

A. It was the first foreign war in which the Romans 
.had been engaged ; and, while employed in it, they 
formed. the design of becoming masters of the sea, 
which they accomplished. 



NINTH EPOCHA. 55 

Q, What was llie progress of the war ? 

A. i he consul Duilius ventured to attack the Car- 
thaginian ticet, and obtained a complete victory. Rcgu- 
lus, nis successor, no less distinguished himself He 
landed in Africa, and reduced Laithage to the utmost 
extremity ; but Xantippus, the Lacedemonian general, 
arriving, gave a great change to the atiuirs of Afiiea. 
Regulus was vanquished and made prisoner. 

Q. What effect had this reverse of fortune upon Re- 
gulus ? 

A. It gave additional lustre to his fame. Being sent 
into Italy to negociate a peace, and treat for an exchange 
of prisoners, he warmly defended, in the senate, tliat 
law, by which it was declared inconsistent with the glory 
of the Roman name, to redeem prisoners taken captive 
on the day of battle. 

Q. What was the result ? 

A. Upon his reiurn to Africa, it is said, he suffered 
a cruel death from the resentment of the Cartliaginiuns, 
who were incapable of admiring that greatness of soul, 
which made him prefer tne interest of liis country to 
all private considerations. 

Q. How was the war afterwards conducted ? 

A. With various success. Hamilcar, the Caithagi- 
nian general, distinguislied himself cminenily in ..icily 
by his military skill ; but tinally the consul Lutaiius 
obtaining a coiwplete victory over tiie enemy's Ueet, 
Carthage was compelled to submit, and to accept such 
terms of peace as the Romans were pleased to grant 

them. 

Q. When did this war terminate ? 

A. In theyearof the world o765. 

Q. Did the Carthaginians enjoy peace upon the con- 
clusion ot this war i 

A. No : they were immediately after involved in ano^ 



56 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ther, which brought them to the brink of destruction. 
The mercenary troops, of which the army was com- 
posed, revolting for want of pay, were joined by most 
of the ciut'S of Africa. All endeavours to reconcile 
them proved ineflectual ; they invested Carthage, and 
would have dcstmyed it, but for the valour and conduct 
of Mamilcar, who at length vanquished the rebels, and 
recovered the revolted cities. 

Q. Did the Carthaginians lose any part of their ter- 
ritory during this Vvar ? 

A. Ves ; thty lost Sardinia by the treachery of tiie 
Romans, who takinjjf advantage of their domestic trou- 
bles, seized that important inland. 

Q. What was their situation in Spain ? 
A. Haniilcar was sent to re-establish their dominion 
in that province, lie carried on a war for nine years 
with great success : his S'jn, the famous Hannibal, was 
in the camp with him, where he learned the art of war, 
and acquired that implacable hatred against the Ro- 
mans, winch afterwards gave rise to so much conten- 
tion. 

Q. Who succeeded Mamilcar in the command of the 
army ? 

A. Asdrubal, whose prudence and mild administra- 
tion, established the Carth igiuian power in Spain. 
Q. How were the Romans occui)ied during this lime ? 
A. They were engared in a war with Teuta queen 
of the lUyrians, who suffered licr sul)jects to practise 
piracy on the sea coast ; but she was obliged to submit, 
and resign part of her dominions to the conquerors. 
Their next war was with the Gauls. After bringing As- 
drubal into a treaty not to pass the Iberus, they enter- 
ed seriously into the contest : they vanquished the 
Gauls in several battles^ passed the Po, and pur5U9d 



NINTH EPOCHA. 57 

iheir conquests on the opposite side, until they became 
masters of Italy, from the Alps to the Ionian sea. 

Q. When did Asdrubal die ? 

A. About tliis time ; and was succeeded by Hanni- 
bal, at the age of twenty-five, in the command of the 
army. 

Q. What was his character ? 

A. He was the peculiar favourite of tlic soldiers, and 
possessed all the virtues that distinguished his father. 
He completed the conquest of Spain ; and conceiving 
himself sufliciently powerful to enter upon tlie long pro- 
jected war with the Romans, he advanced with his ar- 
my to the river Iberus, and took the city of Saguntum. 

Q. Did not the Roman ambassadors at Carthage in- 
terfere ? 

A. Yes ; but their complaints were little regarded. 
The loss of Sicily ; tiie treacherous behaviour of the 
Romans in seizing Sardinia ; and their unjust attempts 
to abridge the power, and to bound the conquests of the 
Carthaginians in Spain; had so irritated their mmds, 
that all the endea\om's of the party, which opposed 
Hannibal, were fruitless. 

Q. \\'hat effect had this upon the Romans ? 

A. They proclaimed war against the Carthaginiani% 
by order of the senate. 

Q. At what time was tliis ? 

A. In the ;)3 jlh year of the city, ami of the world 
:>7S7. 

Q. In what manner did Hannibal proceed ? 

A. He gained over the Italic Cauls, by ambassadors 
secretly dispatched for that purpose ; lie prevailed on 
the nations throui;h which he was to pass, l)y presents, 
not to oppose his march ; and secured the peace of 
Africa and Spain, by strong detachments of troops left 
under ilie command of proper ^o\err.ori3. He tlien 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

crossed the Iberus, ti-averscd thePyrennees, Trans-Al- 
pine Gaul, and the Alps; and rushed upon Italy with 
all his forces, before the Romans imagined him set out 
from Spain. The Italic Gauls immediately joined him, 
and seasonably reinforced his army, which had suffered 
extremely in its passage over the Alps. 

Q. What was the further prop;ress of the war ? 

A. Four battles were successively won, which render- 
ed it probable that Rome nmsi soon fall into llie hands 
of this irresistible conqueror. Ilieronymus, king of 
Syracuse, declared against the Romans ; almost the 
whole of Italy abandoned them ; and the republic ap- 
peared deprived of its last resource, by the death of 
the two Scipios in vSpain. 

Q. How did she extricate herself from this cxtre- 
tremity ? 

A. She owed her safety to the valour and conduct of 
three great men. The firnuiess of Tabius, who, dc- 
spisin;^ popular rumours, pursued steadily ».hose slow 
measures, by which alone he found Hannibal could be 
vanquished, served as a rampart to his country : Mar- 
ccllus, who raised the seige of Nola, and took Syracuse, 
revived the courage of the Roman troops: but the glo- 
ry of conquering Hannibal, and putting an end to this 
dangerous war, was reserved for young Scipio. 

Q. At what age was he invested with the command 
of the army ? 

A. At the age of twenty-four, he undertook the com- 
mand in Spain ; where his father and uncle had both 
fallen. Immediately upon his arrival, he attacked New 
Carthage and took it. His affability and humanity drew 
most ofthe nations of Spain into an alliance with the Ro- 
mans. The Carthaginians were obliged to abandon 
that rich and fruitful country ; and Scipio, not .satisfied 



NINTH EPOCHA. 59 

with tliese conquests, pursued them into Africa. Eve- 
ry thini^; gave way to his superior valour and abilities. 
The alhes of the Carthaginians forsook tliem, their ar- 
mies were defeated, and that haughty republic was now 
made to tremble in its turn. 

Q. Did not Hannibal successfully oppose Sclpio ? 

A. No; although he had maintained his ground 1C> 
years in Italy, he was unable to stop the progress of this 
young conqueror. Scipio defeated him m a pitched bat- 
tle, and forced the Carthaginians to submit to the terms 
of peace he had prescribed them. Thus ended the 
second Punic war. 

Q. At what time did this war terminate ? 

A. In the 552d year of the city, 17 ycai-s after its conV 
menccmcnt; and in the year of the world 3800. 

Q. Let me now turn your attention to the affairs of 
Asia, which during the pcricxl you have been speaking 
of, were entirely separated from those of Europe. What 
was the first occurrence worthy of notice ? 

A. About the middle of the first Punic war, while 
Antiochus Tlieos, king of Syria (the son of Antiochus 
Soter) was engaged in war with Ptolemy king of Egypt ; 
Thcodotus governor of Hactria, revolted and declared 
iiimself king of that populous province, which contained 
not less than a thousand cities, all of which he got under 
his obedience, and rendered himself too strong to be after- 
wards reduced. 

Q. Did any otiicr nations follow this example ? 

A. Yes ; particularly the Parthians, who, headed by 
Arsaces, expelled the Macedonians, and laid the foun- 
dation of an empire, which, in lime, extended itself ovxr 
higher Asia; and which grew to such strength, hat the 
Romans in their greatest power, were not able to shake. 
It was afterwards called the throne of Arsacidae, from 
Arsaces the founder of tlie empire. 



60 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Q. Did not these revolts greatly weaken the empire, 
of the Syrian kini^s ? 

A. Yes ; they became almost secluded from ail the pro- 
vinces that lay beyond the Tyejris. This led them to 
turn their attention to such parts of their dominions as 
bordered upon Egypt ; in consequence of which, Jiidea, 
which separated the two kingdoms, became the ground 
of war and contention, and occasioned the shedding of 
much blood. 

Q. You informed me some time back, that after the 
death of Alexander the v^reat, the empire of Egypi 
Was founded by Ptolemy : who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Ptolemy Philadclphus ; and his succes- 
sors bore the name of Ptolemy, until Cleopatra ; un- 
der whom the kingdom became a province of the Ko- 
man empire. In the rei^n of Ptolemy Philadclphus, the 
Old Testament was translated into Greek, by his or- 
ders, in the city of Alexandria : it is called the Septua- 
gint, and is frequently referred to in the New Testa- 
ment. 

Q. To return to the Romans, which way did they 
turn their attention, after making peace with Carthage ? 
A. Towards Greece. Philip, kuig of Maredon, hav- 
ing entered into an alliance with IlannihfJ when in Ita- 
ly, it was considered a suflicient ground for war. The 
consul Flamminius was sent aguinst him, and by his 
victories reduced the power of that prince, and restored 
the several cities of Greece to tl.eir liberty. 
Q. ^Vhcn was this ? 
A. In the year of the world 3808. 
Q. What became of Hannibal? 

A. Being obliged to fly his country, he took refuge 
with Antiochus, surnamed the Great, king of Syria; 
and inspiring him with a jealousy of the Roman power, 
persuadcfl him to oppose their growing greatness- 



NINTH EPOCIIA. 61 

Q. Did Antiochus succeed iii the warf 

A. No; rejecting the wise counsels of Hannibal, he 
lifts disappointed in all his designs. Beaten by land and 
sea, he v.as compelled to submit to the terms of peace 
imposed by Lucius Scipio, brotheV of Scipio African.- 
us. 

Q. In what year ? 

A. In the year of the world 3815. 

Q. What was the fate of llannil)al after this defeat ? 

A. He sought protection from Pioisias king of 13ithy- 
nia, but finding himself still persecuted by Ambassies 
from the Romans ; to avoid falling into their hands, he 
terminated his life by a dose of poison. 

Q. Who succeeded Antiochus the Great, m the king- 
dom of Syria ? 

A. Seleucus; and after his death, Antiochus Epipha- 
ncs, who had been some time hostage at Rome, got 
possession of the throne. 

Q. What was he remarkable for ? 

A. For his ciiiel persecutions against the Jews, which 
driving them to extremities, many of them united in 
their own defence under Matthias, the father of Judas 
Maccabeus, who was much fumed for the many victo- 
ries which he obtained over the armies of the king of 
Syria. 

Q. Who succeeded Philip in the kingdom of Mace- 
don ? 

A. Perseus, who presuming too much upon his wealth 
and numerous armies, ventured to engage in a war 
with the Romans, but he was vanquished in battle by 
Paulus Emilius, and was obliged to surrender himself 
into their hands. Thus the kingdom of Macedon, which 
had for nearly 200 years, given masters not only to 
Greece, but to all the kingdoms of the east, was now rc- 

F 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

(luccd to the forni of a Rom'JiTi province ; vhich leads 
to the commencement of the Roman empiie. 

Q. Ho.v do you fix the bcj^inning of the Roman en|r 
pire to this periled, when they were loni; before tl e most 
powerful people in the world r 

A. In regulating the succession of empires in arxicnt 
history, the most natural order is that which represents 
them rising one after another, and establisliing each 
its power and greatness upon the entire ruin of that 
which went before. Thus, altliough upon the death of 
Sardanapalus,thc Assyrian monarchy was dissolved, yet 
reviving again in the kings of Nineveh and Babylon, that 
revolution was not considered as the era of a new empire. 
But when the power of the Assyrians was utterly bro- 
ken, and the dominion of Asia wholly transferred to 
another ^Kople by Cyrus, the Persian empire then com 
menccd. In the same manner, although the Persians 
were greatly weakened under Xerxes and his son Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus ; although they were forced to 
•ccept of such terms of peace as Greece v.as uiliii.g to 
grant them ; yet as that monaixhy stiil subsisted under 
kh\rr;s of its own ; and was not finally subdued until Alex- 
ander passed into Asia and overthrew Darius; all 
historians extend tlie period of its duration to that time ; 
after which the sovereignty of Asia was transferred 
irou\ the Persians to the Macedonians : and here began 
the third great empire. The same reasons induce us 
to exieud the period of tlie Macedonian empire to the 
defeat of Perseus by Paulus I^miiius ; for although the 
Romans had long before givtn laws to Greece, and even 
to the kings of Macedon, yet that kingdom was not ut- 
terly destroyed \mtil this time, when it became a pro- 
vince of the Roman empire, and all its power and do- 
minion were transferred to the conqueroi*s : and Rome 
w;>s advanced to the sovereignty of the world. 



TENTH EPOCHA. 6 ?y 

Q. Mciilion the particular period Avhen, acccr lini^ lo 
ihis logiibtion (which as respects ancient history I thii^.k 
a LTOocl one) the IMiicedonian empire ended, and that oi' 
the Romans succeeded ? 

A. In the 535th year of Rome, 168 years before Chribt 
and of the world 3836. 



TKNTJI EPOCHA. 



f ALL OF THE GUECIAN EMPIRE. 

Q. Who succeeded Antiochus Epiphancb in the Syri- 
an monarchy ? 

A. His son Antiochus Eupator, a minor of nine years 
old, \inder the tuition of Lysias ; Demetrius Soter tl:r 
re il heir, being at Rome, a l;OStaj;c. 

Q. What was the situation of the Jc\rs during the 
reign of this young monarch ? 

A. They were still persecuted ; but Judas !\!accabeus 
opposed the Syriars with nuich valour and success, ijxl 
t)btained many victories over them. 

Q. Did Antiochus lu'pator rei^-n loni; in Syria "r 

A. No ; Demetrius iioter escaped from Rome, was ac- 
i-.nowledged king ; and young Antiochus and Lysias 
were shiin. 

Q. Did this produce any e]iunj:,e in favour of tiie 
.lews ? 

A. Not any : they were, as before, persecuted. De- 
metrius sent numerous armies against then^ which 
were defeated by Judas ; but being at length overpow- 
ered by the superiority of his enemy, he was slain, 
fighting with astoiiishing bravery. He was euc 



64 AN'CIENT HISTORY. 

cteded in th^* cliarj^e of defcndinij the Jews, by his bro^ 
ther Jonathan, who no less dlstinj^uished himself by hU 
valour, and by a firmness that no misfortunes were 
al:!e to shake. 

Q. Wiien did this take place ? 
A. In tlic year of the world 3843. 
Q. Did the Jews obtain any foreign aid ? 
A. Ws ; tlic Romans; pleased to see: the kings of Sy- 
ria iiunibltd, I'eadily granted the Jews their protection, 
and declared them, about this time, their friends and 
i.IIies. 

Q. Vrhat clian.^e took place in llie t'.uone of Sy- 
ria, and Mhen? 

A. ALxandcr Bales, pretcndinr, to he the sonof An- 
tiochus Epiphanes, and being supported by Ptolemy 
Philomtter, Jiing; of l'4;ypt, claimed the throne of Sy- 
ria, slew Demetrius, and got possession of the king- 
dom, in the year of the world 3855. 

Q. Did Alexander Bales liold the throne of Syria 
Jong ? 

A. No : in three years after, Demetrius Soter van- 
ijuished him in battle, and got posses^ion of the throne. 
O. "What was the situation of the Carthaginians ? 
A. They had recovered, in some measure, the great 
losses w!r.ch t'.iey had sustained during the second Pu- 
nic war ; but the Romans, dreading their growing pow- 
er, declared war against them, with a resolution to ut- 
terly destroy Cartha;^e, in order to get rid of so formi- 
dable a rival ; which was effected by Scipio h^milianus, 
who by this achievement acquired for himself and 
his family the surname of Africanus, in the f)08th year 
of i\ome, and of the world 3860. 

Q. What other events took place at this time ? 
A. Corinth was reduced to ashes by Lucius Mum- 
mius the consul, and with it ended the Achean league. 



TENTH EPOCHA. 6S 

Ail the paintings and statues, which adorned that city, 
were removed to Rome. The Romans, who before 
had boasted of no other knowledge than that of war, po- 
litics, and agriculture, at this time begun to value them- 
selves upon a polite taste, and the relish of what was 
excellent in the fine arts. Learning became honoura- 
i)le at Rome, the liberal sciences were encouraged ; and 
advances were made in the various branches of know- 
led :?;e. 

Q. What was the situation of Syna ? 

A. It was the scerie of new revolutions. Antioclius 
Theos, son of Alexander Bales, under the tuition of Di- 
odotus Triphon, dethroned Demetrius Nicator, who by 
his mal-administration had incurred Ib.e hatred of his 
subjects ; but he recovered his authority soon afier, and 
declared Judea a free and independent !.*ate, in conside- 
ration of the services he had received from Simon, the 
brother and successor of Jonathi,r.. 

Q. With Khat pou er was Simon vested by this grant ? 

A. He was constituted hi^h priest and sovereign 
j)rince of the Jews. 

Q. Was not tlie opprcsbicn of the Jews much allevi- 
ated from this time ? 

A. Ves ; t'le land was released from taxes ; ever) 
foreign yoke was abolished ; and Judea became a dis- 
tinct kingdom, under princes of its own. 

Q. W!ien did this lake place ? 

A. In the year of the world 386.'. 

Q. What was the situation of the Parthians at this 
lime ? 

A. They began to grow formidable by the victories 
of Mithridatesj who subdued India and Bactria, and ad- 
vanced with an army toward the Euphrates, to extend 
Jiis conquests on the other side ; but the inhabitants 
called Demetrius Nicator to their assistance, who con- 



66 ^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ceived the design of again reducing the Parthians, as 
he still reo;arded them as rebels. 

Q. What was his success ? 

A. He obtained several victories over Mitlu'idates ; 
but preparing to return into Syria to chastise Tryphon, 
who, after murdL-ring Antiochus Theos, had usurp- 
ed the crown, he unfortunately fell into an ambuscade, 
and was made prisoner by t!ie Parthians. 

Q. Did the kingdom of Syria remain long in the 
hands of 'I'ryphon ? 

A. No ; lie was suddenly abandoned by his subjects, 
to whom he rendered himself insupportable by his 
prid-e ; and ay Demetrius was still a prisoner in Par- 
thia, and his children by Cleopatra under age, Antio- 
chus Sidetus, the brother of Demetrius, was chosen 
protector. 

Q. Did Cleopatra take any otiier measures ? 

A. Yes; understanding that her husband Nicatorhad 
married Rodaguna, daughter of Phraates, who had suc- 
ceeded Mitiiridates in the throne of Parthia, she marri- 
ed Antiochus, out of revenge; who, when he had set- 
tled himself in the kingdom, and put an end to the usur- 
pation of Tryphon, entered upon a war with the Parthi- 
ans, under pretence of delivering his captive brotlier. 

Q. When was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 5873. 

Q. What was the event of the war ? 

A. Antiochus Sidetus at first had great success; he 
overthrew Phraates in three battles, recovered Pabylonia, 
Media, and the other eastern provinces, except Par- 
thia ; by which Phraates was reduced within tlie narrow 
limits of his first Parthian kingdom : but the Syrian ar- 
my going into winter quarters, where they were obliged 
to disperse over the country, Phraates fell unexpectedly 
i7pon them, and advancing against Antiochus, he over- 



TENTH EPOCHA. 67 

powered him with numbers, slew him and his followers ; 
and pursuing his advantage, he made so dreadful a 
slaughter, that there scarcely returned a man into Sy- 
ria to carry the mournful intelligence of this fatal over- 
throw. 

Q. What became of Demetrius ? 

A- He had returned into Syria, and on his brother's 
death recovered the kingdom. Phraates after being 
three times defeated by Antiochus, had released Deme- 
trius from liis captivity, and sent him to Syria, in hopes 
that by exciting an insurrection there, for the recovery 
of his crown, he might force Antiochus to return for 
the suppressing of it. 

Q. How long did Demetrius continue to reign in Sy- 
ria ? 

A. He M'as dispossessed, in the year of the world 
3880, by Alexander Zebina, son of Bales, who in his 
turn, was defeated and expelled by Antiochus Gryphus. 

Q. Let me turn your attention to the Romans. What 
was their situation during the time of which we have 
been speaking ? 

A. They were engaged in a war with the Numan- 
tines in Spain, and so often defeated, that they were ob- 
liged to send Scipio Emilianus us their last resource 
and hope, before they could subdue them. They were, 
at the same time, in danger of an insurrection of their 
own slaves, in Sicily, under Eunus, and were obliged to 
employ the whole forces of the Republic against them. 
Soon after this, Attains, king of 1 erj^amus, dying, left 
the Romans heirs to his immense wealth. 

Q. Did their thirst for conquest still continue ? 

A. Yes ; not satisfied with the dominion of Italy, 
Greece, and Africa^ they were now beginning to extend 
theij' con cpiests beyond the Alps, where Sextius, having 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

subdued the Saluvians, established the first Roman co- 
lony at Aix in Provence. 

Q. While the Republic was thus enlarging her terri- 
tories, did she enjoy domestic tranquillity ? 

A. No ; the avarice, usurpation, and ambition of the 
Patricians, had encroached so much upon the property 
and privileges of the people, that they stood in much 
need of new defenders. The two Gracchi, who gene- 
rously undertook that oflice, being overpowered by the 
faction of the nobility, perished in the glorious attempt ; 
and after them there arose few Tribunes possessed of 
that noble spirit of liberty, which had heretofore distin- 
guished this brave people. Faction and bribery began 
universally to prevail, and these conquerorsof the world 
became slaves to the worst of tyrants. 

Q. At wliat time was this ? 

A. In the ye'ar of the world 3885. 

Q. Who reigned now in Numidia ? 

A. Jugurtha, rendered infamous by the murder of 
Hiempsal and Adherbal, who hyd been left under the 
protection of the Romans. In defendinir himself ao-ainst 
them, he effected more by his presents than by his arms. 
Marius was at length sent against him, and terminated 
the war ? 

Q. Did not Marius soon after distinguish himself by 
another victory ? 

A. Yes ; by the defeat of the Teutones and Cimbri, 
who threatened all the provinces of the Roman Empire, 
and even Italy itseif, with destruction. 

Q. Were the Romans freed from enemies upon this 
•defeat ? 

A. No; these were scarcely suppressed, before a 
more formidable adversary arose in Mithridates, king 
of Pontus, who having made himself master of all Asia 
Minor, passed into Greece, and vras not without much 



TENTH EPOCHA. 69 

(litTiculty driven from thence by Sylla. At the same tinnC) 
Italy endangered the Roman Empire by an universal 
revolt ; and to add to these misfortunes, Rome saw her- 
self torn by the factions of Marius and Sylla, one of 
whom had, by his victories, spread his fame to the re- 
motest regions ; and the other had signalized himself 
as the conqueror of Greece and Asia. Sylla assumed a 
tyrannic sway over his country, and laid the foundation 
of future trouble, by the unhappy precedent of his per- 
petual dictatorship. 

Q. When was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3925. 

Q. What other disturbances were there at this time ? 

A. Sertorius, a zealous partizan of Marius, fixed him- 
self in Spain, and entered into a treaty with Mithri- 
dates ; and Spartacus brought Rome to the point of ruin, 
and was found invincible, until Ponipey was sent against 
him. 

Q. What was the success of the Roman arms abroad, 
during these domestic disturbances ? 

A. Lucullus triumphed in the east. Mithridates was 
beaten in every encounter, and retiring beyond the Eu- 
phrates found himself still pressed and pursued by his 
victorious enemy. But their general, invincible in battle, 
found it impossible to subject the soldiers to obedience, 
and to repress that licentiousness, which, like a frenzy, 
seized the Roman army. 

Q. Was Mithridates wholly discouraged by his nu- 
merous defeats ? 

A. No ; he again prepared to oppose his enemies ; 
and Ponipey, the last hope and refuge of the Romans, 
v/as conceived alone capable of terminating this long and 
destructive war, 

Q. How did he succeed ? 

A. It v/as on this occasion, that his glory rose to its 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

height. lie finally subdued Mithridates, and reduced 
Armenia, v/hithcr he had fied for refuge ; and pursuing 
his advantage, added Albania, Iberia, Syria, and Judea 
to tlie Fvoman empire. 

Q. When was tlds ? 

A. In the year of the world 3941. 

Q. Did the state of affairs at Rome get any better 
dunng these conquests abroad ? 

A. No ; Cicero was engaged in crushing a dangerous 
conspiracy at home, and by his eloquence, more power- 
fully defeated the dark and dcingerous machinations of 
Cataline, than his colleague Anthony did, by his arms : 
and could the eloquence of Cicero, or the virtues of Ca- 
to, those intrepid defenders of the constitution and the 
laws of their country, have roused the JRomans to a 
sense of their danger, the commonwealth might have 
been preserved ; but their efforts were vuiavailing. 
Luxury, avarice, and ambition, had vmiversally taken 
possession of the minds of men, and rendered them in^ 
sensible to great and generous designs. 

Q. Who became the principal directors at Rome ? 

A. Pompey, who reigned without a rival in the Se- 
nate, and whose great authority and power made him 
absolute master of its deliberations ; Crassus, who v/as 
the richest man in Rome, and possessed, next to Pompey, 
the greatest authority ; and Julius Ccesar, who, by his 
victories in Caul, was endeavouring to get a name and 
interest equal to Pompey and Crassus ; these three uni- 
ting, a combination was formed, by which they agreed 
tliat nothing should be done in the commonwealth, but 
what received their mutual concurrence. This was 
called the first Triumvirate. 

Q. What effect had this combination ? 

A. It weakened the constitution, by a new interest 
which had not before taken place in the government, 



TENTH EPOCHA. 7l 

and which was very different from that of the Senate 
or the people, and yet dependant on both. 

Q. What was the first act of Caesar upon being taken 
into the Triumvirate ? 

A. He availed himself of the mterest of his confede- 
rates to obtain the consulship, and commenced his 
schemes for empire, by ingratiating himself into the 
good opinion of the people. For this purpose, he 
procured a law for dividing certain lands in Campania, 
among such of the poor citizens as had at least three 
children. He next deliberated with his confederates 
upon sharing the foreign provinces of the empire be- 
tween them. 

Q. Was this division agreed to ? 

A. Yes ; Pompey chose Spain ; Crassus chose Syria ; 
and to Caesar were left the provinces of Gaul, composed 
of many fierce and powerful nations, most of them unsub- 
dued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection ; 
as it was therefore, rather appointing to conquer than to 
command, this government was granted him for five 
years. 

Q. What states did he subdue in Ms expedition into 
Gaul ? 

A. The Helvetians were the first that he brought into 
subjection, after their losing nearly 200,000 men. 
The Germans were next cut off, to the number of 80,000, 
their monarch narrowly escaping, in a small boat, 
across the Rhine. The Belgse, the Narvians, and the 
Celtic Gauls, were also brouglit under subjection ; and 
after them the Suevi, the Menapii, and all the nations 
from the Mediterranean to the British sea. 

Q. Did he stop here ? 

A. No ; stimulated by the desire of conquest, he cross- 
ed over into Britain, where he defeated the nations and 
obliged them to sue for peace. Thus, in less than nine 



72 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

years, he conquered, besides Britain, all the country 
which extends from the Mediterranean to the German 
sea. 

Q. How was Pompcy engaged, while Caesar was thus 
increasing his reputation and riches abroad ? 

A. He remained at Rome, co-operating with Caesar 
in his ambitious views, and advancing his interest, 
while he vainly imagined he was forwarding his own ; 
by which means Caesar had continued five years longer 
in Gaul. 

Q. Did he at length change his opinion of Caesar ? 

A. Yes ; roused from his lethargy by the fame of 
Caesar's valour and riches, he became at length jealous 
of his own reputation, and did all in his power to injure 
Caesar's. 

Q. In what manner was Crassus engaged ? 

A. In conducting the war against the Pailhians ; 
where he acted with so little prudence, that he suffered 
the enemy to get the advantage of him in almost every 
skirmish ; and being incapable of extricating himself 
from the difficulties in which he was involved, he fell 
a sacrifice to his own rashness : a loss fatal to the Ro- 
man state, as it was principally by him, that the rival 
factions of Caesar and Pompey were kept united. 

Q. When was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3955. 

Q. What event took place after his death ? 

A. It \vas followed by a bloody civil war; in which 
Rome lost her liberty for ever. Caesar, elated with his 
conquests in Gaul, Asia, Mauritania, and Spain ; all 
which he had tmversed with incredible expedition, had, 
by his successes, raised the envy of Pompey and the 
Roman Senate, who, by their injudicious conduct, had 
induced him to march his army to Ravenna ; where, 
finding that Pompey was sent against him as an enemy 



TENTH EPOCHA. 73 



to his country, he passed the Rubican, the prescribed 
boundary of his province, and proceeded to Rome. 
Taking a hirge portion of treasure from the temple of 
Saturn, he v/ent in pursuit of Fompey, and defeating 
him in the plains of Pharsalia, trampled on the liberty 
ef his counti'y, 

Q. Was not ills end very tragical ? 

A. Yes ; a conspiracy was formed against him, which 
had Brutus and Cassius at its head ; in consequence of 
which, he was slain in the senate house, and expired be- 
neath the statue of his unhappy rival, 

Q. When was this ? 

A. In the year of the world 3961. 

Q. What followed this event ? 

A. The city soon after fell into the hands of Antony, 
Lepidus and Octavius Csesar, afterwards called Augus- 
tus, who, by their proscriptions, almost wholly extir- 
pated the Roman nobility. 

Q. What became of Cicero ? 

A. His eloquence, which had been successfully di- 
rected against the rapacity of Verres, and the conspira- 
cy of Cataline, was the cause of his own lamentable 
end. With the boldness of truth, and the warmth of in- 
discretion, he provoked the rage of an implacable 
tyrant, by the enumeration of his private ^ices. The 
vindictive Antony fixed his guiltless head upon that 
rostrum, from which he had so often delighted and in- 
structed his countrymen. 

Q. In Mhat manner did this second triumvirate fix 
the division of the government ? 

A. They determined, that the supreme authority 
should be lodged in their hands, under the title of trium- 
virate ; that Antony should have Gaul ; Lepidus, 
■fepain ; and Augustus, Africa and the Mediterranearf 

G 



74 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Islands ; and that Italy and t!io Eastern provintcs 
should remain in common until their enemies were sub- 
dued ; of which each presented a list. Amongst these 
were comprised, not only the enemies but the friends of 
the triumvirate ; for the paitizans of the one, were often 
fonnd the opposers of the other. Thus Lepidus gave up 
his brother Paulus to the vengeance of his colleague ; 
Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius ; 
and Augustus delivered up Cicero, who was assassinated 
by the direction of Antony, as has been just described. 
Q. You have mentioned, some time back, that Bi*utus 
and Cassius were the principal conspirators against 
Caesar ; did they oppose the usurped authority of the 
triumvirate ? 

A. Yes ; being compelled to quit Rome, they went 
into Greece and Syria, wl^l-e they raised a formidable 
force ; but upon engaging with Antony in the fields of 
Philippi, their army was defeated, and they both fell : 
after which, Rome made no further struggle for her li- 
berty, but quietly submitted to the dominion of her 
conquerors. 

Q. Did they long continue united ? 
A. No; in 3973 Antony and Augustus combined to 
ruin Lepidus, and having effected their purpose, next 
turned their ai-ms against each other. 
Q. What was the event ? 

A. The battle of Actium decided the empire of the 
world in favour of Augustus. Antony, upon that dis- 
aster, was abandoned by his friends, and even by Cleo- 
patra, queen of Egypt ; for whose sake he had brought 
all these misfortunes upon himself. Herod the Idume- 
an, who owed every thing to Antony, was obliged to stib- 
mit to the conqueror ; by which he confirmed himself 
in the possession of the throne of Judea. Thus Augus- 
tus triumphed over every opposition. Alexandria open- 



1 ENTH EPOCHA. i D 

ed iis gates to'liim, and Egypt became a Roman pio- 
vlncc. 

Q. When was tliis ? 

A. In the year of the world 3977. 

Q. What became of Cleopatra ? 

A. Disdaining to adorn the victor's triumph, she ended 
her days by poison j and Antony, sensible that he could 
no longer withstand the power of his adversary, by a 
voluntary death, left Cscsar in the unrivalled possession 
of the Roman empire. Thus the Roman common- 
wealth, 727 years after the foundation of thajt city by 
Romulus, was converted into an absolute monarchy. 

Q. In what manner did Augustus conduct him.self ? 

A. Soon after the death of Antony, he returned to 
Rome in triumph, v.iierc, by tlie mildness and justice 
of his government, he endeavoured to reconcile his 
countrymen to that power, which it was in vain for them 
any longer to oppose. A erscd in the deepest arts of dis- 
simulation, he pursued with astonishing success, his am*- 
bitious cai'ccr : yet the equity of his laws, iind the prudent 
administration of hi-^ government, made no small recom- 
pense for the evils he had before infiicted. The period 
of history, preceding his accession, fiom the time of Ma- 
rius, presents the most calamitous prospect, filled with 
recitals of sanguinary proscriptions, and images of mar- 
tial horror ; but after the naval victory of Actium had 
given him tl-e empire, the {xene biightened into the 
fair views of order and happiness. The storms of ci\il 
discord were hurihed into peace, and philosophy, litera- 
ture and the arts, derived the greatest and most honour- 
able encouragement from his patronage. lie presented 
to the world the most extraordinary character, since he 
proved, that the smiles of fortune, far from increasing 
t';e severity of his temper, and giving a keener edge t<> 



76 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

his i"c:icntmcnts, could sof:cn a timid and siing-uiiuu-y 
tyrant, into a mild iind generous prince. 

Q. What eifcct had bis administi^ition upon tlie man- 
ners of the people of Rome ? 

A. It had the huppiest effect ; an era of the highest 
refinement commenced with his reign. His pahices 
were adorned with the vases of Corinth. Grecian 
artists were invited to Rome. And the masterly execu- 
tion of tlie medals of that period, prove their superiority 
to those of former times. The capital of the world, 
which Augustus found disrjraced by buildings of the 
rudest form, displayed, under his auspices in its marble 
palaces, temples, and theatres, all the elegance and ma- 
jesty of Grecian architecture. The cultivation of elo- 
quence and poetry were equally cherished. Writers, 
whose works are the glory of ancient Italy, and the sub- 
ject of encomium, for every generation, adorned this 
period, and reached tliat standard of excellence, from 
which the unpolished style of their predecessors, and the 
degenerate afTectadon of their followers, seem equal- 
ly remote. Horace and Virgil, Tibullus and Propertius, 
flourished in the couit of Augustus. 

Q. V/hat conquests did he make over the enemies of 
Rome, who had taken advantage of their intestine divi- 
'oions ? 

A. He subdued th.e Cantivbrians and Asluricins, border- 
ing upon the Pyrennces ; Ethiopia sued for peace ; the 
Favthians dreading his power, sent back the standard 
taken from Cru'^svis, and all the Roman prisoners in 
their hands ; Judca sought his alliance ; Pannonia sub- 
mitted to him ; and Germany trembled at the name of 
this powerful conqueror, ^'ictorious every where, both, 
by land and sea, he shut the temple of Janus, and gave 
peace to all the Roman empire. 

Q. What other event took place, during this period ; 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 77 

A. At this time, when peace spread her benign infiu- 
ence over the world, and war, with all its horrors, had 
for a moment retreated from tlic abodes of men, there 
was born at Bethlehem, in Judea, the Prince of Peace, 
Jesus Christ, our Saviour ; the author and founder of 
the Christian religion. Herod was then the governoi/ 
of Judea, under Augustus. 
Q. When was this ? 
■ A. In the year of the world 4004. 



ELEVENTH EPOCKA. 



CHRISTIAN ERA. 

Q. The present Epocha biings us to a ncv,' era, tu'c 
most interesting to mankind, and t!v^ most deserving oi 
commemoration of any that Las been noticed, in the 
annals of nations. The Chri:.tian religion, which you 
have mentioned, being promulgated at this tim.e by its 
Divine Founder, is indeed, a system of EtJiics so much 
superior to every thing that went before it, that it will 
not admit of a comparison. Before you proceed with the 
history, give me a short view of it? 

A. The precepts of Christianity form the most com- 
plete, most intelligible, and most useful system of mo- 
ral philosophy. The standard of duty which is set up in 
the gospel, is agreeable to every rational idea of the Su- 
preme Being, and is calculated to correct our errors, 
to exalt our affections, to purify our hearts, and to en- 
lighten our understandings. The motives by which 
Christ enforces the practice of his laws, are consistent 

G 2 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

with the -vvisdom of t'le Ahni^^hty, aiul correspondent 
to the expectations of rational beings. He wlio duly 
weiglis the elTccts of the Christian duties, and remarks 
how they contribute to restore num to the original dig- 
nity of his nature, will be led to conclude, that they 
fonn an indispensal)le part of a religion coming from 
God ; because they are in every respect consistent with 
his wisdom, mcicy, and goodness. 

Q. What are the superior rules of conduct which the 
gospel enjoins ? 

A. The sr.crifice of self interest, selfish pleasiu'cs, 
and vain glory. Hy it alone we are taught, in the most 
explicit language, to check all violent passions, and to 
cultivate the mild and pure aiTections of the heart; 
to forgive injuries, to love our enemies, to resist the first 
impulse of evil desires, to practise true humility and 
universal benevolence; and to prefer the joys of heaven 
to the pleasures and occupations of the Morld. 

Q. Do not the precepts of Christianity, then, furnish 
the best rule of life ? 

A. Yes; were the actions of mankind to be regulated 
by them, not liinr;- would be wanting to render them hap- 
py. Peace and liarniony would floui ish in every part of 
the globe. There would be no uijustice, no impiety ; no 
fraud, no rapine ; no reign of disorderly passions. Every 
one satisfied with his own lot, resigned to the divine 
will, and enjoying a full prospect of endless happiness, 
would pass his days in contentment and tranquillity ; 
to which neither pain, nor sorrow, nor even fear of 
death, could ever give any long interruption. 

Q. Your idea of the Christian religion is a very just 
one ; and while you are enriching your minds by the 
acquisition of science, 1 hope you will never forget 
that an attention to the diviiic precepts of tlie gospel, 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 79 

is, of all duties, the most important ; as by that alone you 
can attain to happiness here and eternal happiness here- 
after. Let us now proceed with the history. Did Rome 
long njaintain her splendour and refinement after the 
death of Augustus ? 

A. No ; notwithstanding her external magnificence 
during his reign and that of his immediate successors, 
the manners of the people gradually underwent a. 
great change ; the state contained in her bosom, the 
causes of her own decay ; and the poison of dissolution 
preyed upon her vitals. She became in time, as abject 
and degraded, as she had ever been great and power, 
ful. 

Q. Wl^o succeeded Augustus Csesar in the Roman 
empire, and when ? 

A. His son-in-law, Tiberius, in the 15th year of the 
Christian era, and of the building of Rome the 765th ; 
this prince had lived in a state of profound dissimula- 
tion under Augustus, and was not at first hardy enough 
to shew hi mself in his real character. In the beginning 
of his reign, nothing appeared but prudence, generosity, 
and clemency. But succeeding events brought to Ir^ht 
his natural dispositions, and discovered the malignity of 
Ids mind. He became at length odious to the world, and 
troviblesome to himself ; an enemy to the lives of others, 
;ind a tormentor of his own. 

Q. When did the crucifixion of our Saviour take 
place ? 

A. In the eighteenth year of this monarch's reign, 
and the 33d, of the Christian era. 

Q. By whom was Tiberius succeeded ? 

A. By Caligula, in the year 39. 

Q. What was his character ? 

A. Like his predecessor, he concealed his enormities 



80 A>JCIENT HISTORY. 

in the beginning of his reign ; but in less than eight 
months, all appc:irancc of moder?.tion and clemency 
vanished ; >vhiie unexampled avarice, and capricious 
cruelty, took possession of his mind. After a short reign 
of three years and ten months, lie was assassinated by 
Cassius Chcrea, tribune of the praetorian bands, and was 
succeeded by his uncit* Claudius, who in the commence- 
ment of his reign gave hopes of a liappy administra- 
tion ; but soon after, lie began to lessen his solicituile for 
the public go^d, and committed to his favourites the 
concerns of the empire. 

O. Was there any foreign cxpedilion undeitaken 
during this emperor's reign ? 

A. Yes ; the Britons, M'ho, for nenrly a century, had 
been left in the undisturbed possession of ti^cir island, 
began to seek the mediation of Iconic to suppress their 
intestine divisions. Bercius, a native of that country, by 
many arguments ])ersudded the emperor to m.\ke a de- 
scent upon the islaiul, and Piautius the Pi'iCtor, a\ as or- 
dered to make preparation for the expedition. 

Q. What was his success ? 

A. In conjunction with his lieutenant Vespasi in, he 
vigorously prosecuted the war; thirty battles were 
fought and a pu't of the island reduced into the form of 
a Roman province. liis succerssor Ostorius, against 
whom the Ikitons rebelled, after an obstinate resistance, 
at length overcame them; and Caractacus king of the 
Silures or inhabitants of South Wales, was taken cap- 
tive and brought to Pvome, where, from his in'r pidity 
and valour^ he received the pardon of the emp.-ror. 

Q. In what manner did thi^ emperor's reign termi- 
nate ? 

A. He was poisoned by Ins second Mife Agrippina, 
flic daughter of his brother Cermanicus ; a wpman of a 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 81 

cniel and ambitious spirit, \vhoLe ^rcat object was to 
procure the succes'oion for Nero; her i>oii by a former 
m^'riage. 

Q. When did Nero succeed Cluudius ? 

A. In the year 55 ; and although but seventeen years 
of age, he began his reign v.itli the general approbati- 
on of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, and humane. 

Q. Was there not a remarkable cliange in his cha- 
racter ? 

A. Yes ; as he increased in years, he increased in in- 
famy. The execution of his mother Agrippina, was 
the first alarming instance he gave of his ciiielty. All 
the bounds of virtue being thus broken, he gave loose to 
appetites which were not only sordid but inhuman. 
A great part of the city of Rome, during his reij^n, was 
reduced to ashes, and most historians ascribe the con- 
iiagration to him, 

Q. Were there any proofs of this ? 

A. Yes; during the conflagration, none were permitted 
to extinguish the flames ; and persons w ho were seen 
•settuig fire to houses, declared they had orders for do- 
hig so : but Nero used every art to evade the imputa- 
tion of so detestable an action, and to fix it upon the 
Christians, who were at that time gaining ground in 
Rome. 

Q. Did he cflcct his impious j)urpose ? 

A. Yes ; nothing could be more dreadful than the per- 
secution raised against them upon this false accusation. 
Wlun the day was not sufficient for their tortures, the 
flames in which they perished, says Tacitus, served to 
illuminate the nij^^ht. In this persecution it is generally 
stipposed that Siiinl Raul was beheaded, and that Saint 
Reter was crucified ; there are, however, some learned 
men of opinion, that Saint Reter never went into Italy. 

Q. Did he confine his cruelties to the Christians ? 

A. No; Seneca the philosoplier, Lucan the poci, 



82 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

the valiant Corbula, who had gained Nero numerous 
victories over tlic Parthians, with many of the priiicipai 
families of Rome, fell victims to his tyranny. Human 
nature at length becoming weary of bearing her perse- 
cutor, the whole world seemed roused> as if by com- 
mon consent, to i id the earth of a monster. Sergius 
Galba, who was at that time governor of Spain, accepted 
the invitation of Vindcx, to march with an army towards 
Rome. 

Q. What effect had this upon Nero? 

A. The reputation of Galba, upon hearing he had de- 
clared against him, struck him with the utm.ost terror ; 
^d he fell into a swoon, from which, when he recovered, 
lie tore his clothes and exclaimed he was undone. He 
called for Locusta to furriish him with poiscm ; and retir- 
ed into the Servelian gardens with an intention of flying 
into l.'gypt. But being prevented, and the revolt becom- 
ing general, he went from house to hoiisefor admittance 
without effect. In this distress, Phaon one of his freed 
men, offered him his house abcait four miles distant, 
where he might some time remain concealed ; Nero ac- 
cepted tlie offer, and half dressed, with his head cover- 
ed, and hiding his face with a handkerchief, he mounted 
on horseback, atterided by four of his domestics. 

Q. What were the incidents of his journey ? 

A. Though short, it is said to have been crowded with 
extraordinary adventures ; an earthquake gave him the 
first alarm. The lightning from heaven flashed in his 
face ; round him, he heard noticing but confused noise 
from the camp, and the cries of the soldiers impre- 
cating a thousand evils upon his head. Jlis horse taLing 
fright, he dropped his handkerchief, and was recognised 
by a soldier who addressed him by his name: alarmed 
at the discovery, he quit his horse and entered a thicket, 
through which he crept to the tack part of Phaon's house. 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 80 

Q. What was the conduct of the Sjenate ? 
A. Finding the prsetorian guards had taken part with 
Galba, they declared him emperor, and condemned 
Nero to die, accordinf*; to the rie*our of the ancient laws ; 
upon heanng of which he was so terrified that he termi- 
nated his existence with a dagger. 
Q. When was this ? 

A. In the 69th year of the Christian era, and 3 2d, of 
Nero's age. 

Q. What was the fate of Sergius Galba? 
A. After a reign of seven months, he was killed by the 
faction of Otho ; and in three months after, Otho WaS 
succeeded by Vitellius, who giving himself up to luxury 
and cruelty, was forsaken by his adherents, and finally 
massacred by tiie soldiers of Vespasian, who had disput- 
ed the etripire with him, and who, upon his' death, 
was declared emperor, by the unaniiiious Consent of the 
Senate and army, in the year 70. 

Q. Where was Vespasian at this time ? 
A. At Alexandria in Egypt, from whence he set out 
to Rome, after giving his son Titus the command of the 
army, which was designed to lay siege to Jerusalem, in 
consequence of the revolt of the Jews ; and was met a 
considerable distance from the city by the Senate and nu- 
merous inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimonies 
of their joy in having an emperor of such great and ex- 
perienced virtues. 

Q. What was the situation of the Jews ? 
A. Josephus, their own historian, represents them as 
having arrived at the highest pitch of iniquity, while 
famines, earthquakes, and prodigies, conspired to fore- 
warn of their approaching ruin. To. add to their mis- 
fortunes, they had the most bitter dissensions among 
themselves, and were split into parties that robbed and 
destroyed each other with impunity. Through their i»- 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

fatuadon and obstinacy, they had long determined to re- 
sist the Roman power, vainly hoping to find protection 
from heaven, which their impieties had utterly offended. 

Q. What was the conduct of Titus ? 

A. He be,i^an his operations about six furlongs from 
Jerusalem during the feast of the passover, when the 
city was filled with people who had come from all parts 
to celebrate that great solemnity. 

Q. What effect had his movements upon the Jews? 

A. It produced a temporary reconciliation between 
the contending frictions ; they determined to oppose 
their common enemy, and afterwards to decide their 
domestic quarrels. Their first sally, which was made 
with much resolution, put the besiegers into great dis- 
order, and obliged them to abandon their camp, and 
fly to the mountains ; but rallying immediately after, 
the Jews were forced back into the ^ity, which was 
strongly fortified by three walls on every side, except 
where it was surrounded by deep vallies. 

Q. How did Titus proceed ? 

A. He began by battering down the outward wall, 
which after much fatigue and danger he effected, shew- 
ing at the same time, the greatest clemency to the Jews, 
and offering them repeated assurances of pardon. Five 
days after the commencement, he broke down the se- 
cond wall, and made preparations for battering the 
third, which was their last defence ; but before he began, 
he sent Josephus, their countryman, into the city to ex- 
hort them to yield, who used all his eloquence to per- 
suade them, but he was only reviled with scoffs and re- 
proaches. 

Q. What was the consequence ? 

A. The siege was carried on with greater vigqur than 
before. The city was surrounded with a trench to pre- 
vent relief and succour from abroad, several batteries 



ELEVENTH EPOCKA. 85 

for engines were raised, and the v/all at length was bat- 
tered down, and he entered the citadel by force. 

Q. What effect had this upon the Jews ? 

A. They continued to deceive themselves with ab- 
surd and groundless expectations, while many fc/i^j 
prophets deluded the multitude, declaring they should 
soon have assistra:ice from heaven. In the mean time 
the battle centered round the inner wall of the temple,- 
while the defendantB desperately combated from above. 

Q. Was not Titus willing to have saved that beautiful 
structure ? 

A. Yes ; but a soldier casting a brand into some adja- 
cent buildings, the lire communicated to the temple, 
and, notwithstanding the utmost endeavours on both 
sides, the whole edifice Avas quickly consumed. The 
sight of the temple in ruins effectually damped the ar- 
dour of the Jews. They now began to perceive that 
heaven had forsaken them, while their cries and lam.en- 
tations echoed from the adjacent mountains. 

Q. Did they immediately submit to the Romans ? 

A. No ; the most resolute endeavoured to defend the 
upper and stronger part of the city named Sion ; but 
Titus with his battering engines soon after made him- 
self entire master of the whole of it. John and Simon, two 
leading characters of the opposite factions, were taken 
from the vaults where they had concealed themselves : 
the first was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, 
and Simon was reserved to grace the conqueror's tri- 
umph. The greatest part of the populace were put to 
the sword, and the city, after a six months siege, was en- 
tirely razod to the ground : so that, according to our 
Saviour's prophecy, not one stone remained upon ano- 
ther. — The number who perished iu this siege, accord- 
ing to Joseplius, amounted to more tlian a million of 
souls, and the captives to almost an hundred thousand. 

H 



86 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Q. AVhat was the conduct of Tilus ? 

A. Upon takinp; Jerusalem his soldiers would have 
crowr.cd him as conqueror, Init he modestly refused 
the honour, urging thul he was only an instrument in 
the hands of heaven, which had evidently declared its 
v.'rath ai^ainst the Jews. 

Q. How did he return to Rome ? 

A. In triumph with his father, and was received ^ith 
tlie utmost magnificence and joy. Amongst the spoils, 
were exposed vast quantities of gold, and the book of the 
Holy Law taken out of the temple. A triumphal arch 
was erected, on which were described all the victories of 
Titus over the Jews. His father Vespasian built a tem- 
ple to peace, in which Mere deposited most of the 
Jewish spoils ; and having calmed all the commotions in 
every part of the empire, he shut up the temple of 
Janus, which had been open five or six years. 

Q. By whom was \'espasian succeeded ? 

A. By his son Titus, in the year 79, after having 
reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects and deserving 
of their affection, although he had in some instances 
displayed too much rapacity and avarice. 

Q. What was the character of Titus ? 

A. After his ascension to the throne, he became an 
example of the greatest moderation and humanity, 
which, added to his justice and generosity, procured 
him the love of all good men. 

Q. Were ihzvc not some very heavy misfortunes be- 
fel the Romans during his reign ? 

A. Yes ; an eruption of Mount Vesuvius did much 
damage, destroying many towns, and throwing its ashes, 
says Cioldsmith, into countries an hundred miles distant. 
Upon this memorable occasion, Pliny, the naturalist, lost 
his life. Being impelled by an unwarrantable curiosity 
to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the flames. 
About the same time' a fire broke out at Rome, whiciv 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 87 

continued three days ; and was followt d by a plat^ue, ir 
which ten tliousand pcrs'jns Avere said to have been bu- 
ried in a day. 

Q. Vrhat was the conduct ox'' the ei-pperor ? 
A, He did every thing in his power lo repair the 
damage sustained by the public, and with rebpect to the 
city, declared that he would take the whole loss upon 
himself. 

Q. What conquests did the Romans make during his 
reign ? 

A. Agricola, who had been sent into Britain in the 
latter end of Vespiisian's reign, in order to quell the re- 
fractory, and to civilize those who had formerly submit- 
ted to the Roman power, rendered liimself master of 
the whole country. 

Q. In wliat manner did Agricola conduct himself af- 
ter he had made this con(iUCi;t ? 

A. He used every moans to restore disci'.^linp. Uk U\u 
own army, and to introc'uce some degree of refinement 
amongst those whom he had conquered. He encourag- 
ed them to build temples, theatres, and stately houses ; 
he directed the sons of their nobility to be instructed in 
the liberal arts ; had them taught the Latin lunguage, and 
induced them to iinitfte the Komun modes of dress 
and iiviiig. Thus by degrees lliis l^arbarous people 
bL'g.m to assum^:: the kr.urious manners of their con- 
(pierors. 

Q. When did this emperor die ? 

A. In the year 8 1 , and ::d of his reign ; and not v.iih- 
CHit suspicion of having been poisoned by his brother 
Domitian, vvho siicceeded him. 

Q. What was the character of Domitian ? 

A. In public, '>c was proud and ostentatious ; in pri- 
vate, mean and contemptible. Like Cahgula, he was al 
once a hypocrite and a tyrant. During his reign, John 
Ibc Evangelist was banished to the Isle of Patmos, where 



SS ANCIENT HISTORY. 

lie vv'i'ote the Revelations. Doniitian was at length stab»' 
bed by Stephanus the comptroller of his household. 
I'his emperor was the last of the twelve Caesars. 

Q. Vv !io succeeded him, and when ? 

A. Cocccius Nerva, in the year S6. He was elected 
l:y the senate, as they determined to lia^ e an emperor 
oT their own choice. He ascended the imperial seat at 
ii vciy advanced age, but filled it with great reputation. 
I'inding how diiticult it war, to hold the reins of the em- 
pire, he p-dopted Ulphius Trajan, who had been brought 
up under the celebrated Ilutarch, his successor ; aj:id 
died of a fever soon after, in the year 98. 

Q. In v/hat manner did Trajan conduct himself? 

A. Besides attending to the business of the state at 
home, he made himself feared and respected abroad ; 
aiKl protected the Roman provinces from the incursions 
of the savages. He also built abridge over the Danube, 
a"nd ccr.que.cd Dacia, now Transylviuiia. 

Q. "\V"as there not, during this emperor's reign, an in- 
Furreclion of the Jews ? 

A. Yes ; this unfortunate people, still infatuated with 
llie vain expectation of some signal deliverance, took 
the advantage of Trajan's absence in the east, in an ex- 
pedition he had undertaken against the Armenians and 
Parthians, to massacre the Cj recks and Romans whom 
they had got into their power. The rebellion first 
began in Cyrene, a Roman province in Africa ; from 
here the llame extended to Egypt, and next to the Isle of 
Cyprus. But these cruelties were of short duration. 
The governors of the respective provinces making head 
agabist their tumultuous fury, entirely defeated them, 
^nd a great number were massacred. 

. Q. In what manner was the emperor engaged during 
these transactions ? 

A. He was prosecuting his successes in the ea^t, 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 89 

wliere he carried the Roman arms farther than they 
had ever been before. But determininij to return to 
Rome, he went to the city of Saieucia, v/here he died cf 
an apoplexy, in the year 1 17. 

Q. W^ere there any other distinguished characters, 
besides Tiutarch, who lived at tlie time of Trajan r 

A. Yes ; Cornelius Tacitus, the Roman historian, 
Scutonius, who v.'rotc the history of the twelve first 
emperoi's, and Pliny the Younger. 

Q. Who succeeded irajan ? 

A. The Romans elected Adiian his kinsman, who 
enacted many salutiiry lav.s : solicitous for the welfare 
of his people, he \isilcd the most distant parts of his do- 
minions. Ke went into (iaul, and from there into Bri- 
tain, where he erected the wall so famous in jiistory, 
for the purpose of preventing the Picts from making 
incuisions into the Roman provinces, lie afterwards 
went into opain, and from tlicnce into the east, Vvliere lie 
repelled tlie Parthians. llavin,;/ visited Athens i.nd 
Sicily, he returned to Home. 

Q. Did not this emperor give orders to rebuild Jeru- 
salem ? 

A. Yes ; and it was performed witli great expediticn 
by the assistance of the Jews, who nov/ began to conc(uve 
hopes of being restored to t'ctir long lost kingdom ; 
but not taking warning by former misfortunes, and 
being incensed at the privileges wliich were granted 
the Pagan worshippers in their new city ; they fell 
upon the Romans and other Pagans dispersed throughout 
Judea, and put them to the sword. 

Q. What was the consequence ? 

A. They M'cre, in their turn, severely pimished by one 
of the emperor's generals, and lost 600,000 men in tlit 
course of a two years war ; after which all the Jews re- 
maining in Palestine were banished, «nd it was made a 

H2 



90 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

capital ofTcncc, for any of thera to return to t!:cii' own 
country. Thu3 the prophecy of their dispersion was 
iiillilk'd by the merais, which, at first, appeared calcu- 
lated to defeat it. 

Q. Whtit other occurrence took place during this 
reign ? 

A. Soon after the insurrection of the Jews, a dan- 
gerous irrupuoii t(.ok place, of tlui northern barbarians. 
They entered Media v.ith great fury, and passing 
throuy;h Arniei.ia, cai-iied their devastations as far as 
Cai)pado(ia. But Adrian preferring peace to an un- 
profitable war, bought them offby large sums of money, 
which induced tliem to return to their native v.ilds to en- 
joy tlieir plunder, and meditate frtsii invasions. 

Q. By whom was this emperor succeeded ? 

A. By Marcuo Antoninus, in the year 13S, whom 
Adrian ha.d adopted some time before his death, upon 
finding his cwii strength sensibly to decline. 

Q. Vv'hat wa'j the character of this piincc ? 

A. He v/ar» eminent for his justice, clemency, and 
moderation. His morals were so pine, that he was 
usually compared to Numa, and was surnamed the 
Pious. He v/as a distinguished rewarder of learned men, 
upon whom he conferred the highest honours. After a 
prosperous reign of 22 years, he was seized with a violent 
fever at Loiium, a pleasure-house at some distance 
from Rome, and after confirming the adoption of Mar- 
cus Aurclius, who had been ni.med by his predecessor, 
he expired, in the year 161. 

Q. Did Marcus Aurelius reign alone ? 

A. No ; although he was left sole successor, he toojt 
Lucius Verus as his associate and equal, with a view of 
his sustaining a part of the toils of empire ; but he found 
him too much inclined to vainty and luxury to be de- 
pended upon. He persuaded him, however, to march 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 91 

against the Parthians, Avho were at this time making- 
great devastations in the east. 

Q. Vvhut was the success of the war? 

A. In four years after, the Parthians were conquered, 
and Aurclius and \''erus triumphed together. During 
this contest, Aurehus liad been assiduous in promoting 
the good of the empire; while \'erus had ieil the man- 
a.<<ement of the war to his Heutenants, and abandoned 
himself to every kind of luxury. 

Q. What measures did AureHus take to reform him? 

A. He proposed a marriage between his daughter i.u- 
cilia ai^.d Verus, in hopes that it would have had a fa- 
vourable iniluence upon his conduct, but it \\as found 
ineflccUial. Lucilla proved of a disposition very unlike 
her father ; and instead of correcting, she only contribut- 
ed to increase, her husband's extravagancies. Aurelius, 
however, still entertained the hope that upon \'erus's 
return to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, 
and that happiness would at length be restored to the 

state. . 

Q. Was tills the case ? 

A. No; nothing could exceed the miserable state of 
t!ie empire shortly after the return of Verus. In this 
dreadful picture was represented an emperor, unawed 
by example, or the calamities surrounding him, giving 
way to unheard-of licentiousness. A raging pesti- 
lence which the army had carried back with them 
from Partha, spreading terror and desolation flirough 
all parts ofthe western world ; earthquakes, famines, and 
inundations, such as had seldom before happened ; the 
products of the earth throu_hout all Ualy devoured by 
locusts ; and to add to these mislortunes, all the barbar- 
ous nations, surrounding the empire, taking advantage of 
its various calamities, made their irruptions even into 
Italy itself. 



92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Q. Did not tlie enthusiasm of the Pagans impute" 
these misfortunes to the iunoctnt Christians ? 

A. Yes ; and in consequtnce of it, a violtnt persecu- 
tion was raised aii'ainst them in ali pt^its oi theen^p're ; 
in which Justin Martyr, Polycarp, bisliop of Smyrna, 
and numerous others suffered martyrdom. 

Q. What was the conduct of Aurclius? 

A. He marched against the Marcomaiini and Qua- 
di, taking Verus with him, who reluctantly left the 
pleasures of Rome for the fatip:ues of a camp. They 
came up with the IMarcomanni near the city of Aqui- 
lea, and after a furious en:^ag-emf,nt, routcl their army, 
and pursuing fhem over the Alps, entirely defeated 
them — Verus returning from Aquil^a to Rome, died of 
an apoplexy in the 40lh year of his age. 

Q. When was this? 

A. In the year 169. 

Q What became of Aurelius ? 

A. He returned to Rome, where he began his usual 
endeavours to benefit mankind by a farther reformation 
of the internal poHcy of the state, but was soon inter- 
rupted by a renev.al of the former wars. 

Q. What remarkable occurrence did he meet with 
durini'- these wars ? 

A. In one of the engagements, he is said to have been 
miraculously relieved, when his army was perishing 
"with thirst, by thi prayers of a Christian legion which 
had been levied in his service- At thai dreadful junc- 
ture, and just as the barbarians were ready to fall upon 
tiieni, it is asserted there fell such a shower of rain as 
instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers 
were seen holding their mouths and their helmets up 
to heaven, and receiving the water which came so mi- 
raculously to their relief. By this unlooked-for aid, the 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 95 

Romans recovered their strcnglh ar.d courage, and 
' turnins^ upon their encPxiies, they cut them to pieces. 
Q. What eiTect had this upon AurcJius ? 
A. He appeared so sensible cf the miraculous assis- 
tance, that he immediately relaxed the persecution 
against the Christians, and wrote to the senate in favour 
of their rcliirion. 

Q. Did he restore peace to his subjects ? 

A. Yes ; but being some time after informed that the 

■Scythians ;iad invaded his territories, and attempting to 

march against them, he was attacked by the plague at 

Vienna, of which he died, in the year 180, and 59th 

year of his age. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
A. By his son Commodus, whose reign v/as marked 
by cruelty, injustice, and corruption. lie was stran- 
gled in the year 192, and was succeeded by Pertinax, 
who had many virtues ; but endeavouring to reform the 
pr-;Storian band, a body generally countenartccd by bad 
emperors, and hired to protect them, he was slain in his 
own palace, by one of the miscreants who composed 
that troop, after a short but blameless reign of three 
months. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The army, who had long conceived themselves 
possessed of a right to dispose of the empire, had now 
the insolence to put it up to public sale. The senate 
and people were obliged to acquiesce in this determina- 
tion, and Didiusj who produced immense sums of ready 
money, obtained it j but was, in a short time after, in 
consequence cf his avarice, abandoned by the army, 
and Septimius Severus elected in his stead, and Di- 
dius was slain by an order of the senate. 

Q. What expeditions were undertaken duHng this 
€inperor*3 reign ? 



'94 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A. He marched against the Parthians, who were then 
invading the frontiers of the empire : he ibrced submis- 
sion from the king- of Armenia, and destroyed several 
cities in Arabia Felix > he landed on the Parthian coast, 
took and plundered the famous city of Ctesephon, and 
then marched back thixjugh Palestine and Egypt, and 
at length returned to Rome in triumph. 
Q. Did he undertake any other expedition ? 
A. Yes ; havino- visited Italy, he went over with his 
two sons, CaracalUi, and Geta (v/hom he had appointed, 
his successors- into Britain. He left Geta in the south- 
ern part of the province, and took Caracalla with him 
in an expedition to Caledonia, in the eom'se of which, 
the Romans experienced a number of difficulties ; a 
great part of the army perishing on their march. 
Q. Was he defeated ? 

A. No ; he so far succeeded as to subdue the Caledo- 
nians, and erected what w^as called Severus's wall, which 
extended from St'lvrr.y-frith to the German Ocean. He 
died at York in 212, and in the 50th year of his age. 
Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Plis two sens were acknowledged as joint empe- 
rors ; but Carav.alla caused his brother to be put to 
death, and after a tyrannical and cruel reign of five 
years, was dispatched by Martial, a centurian, at the in- 
stance of Macrinus, one of his commanders, who was 
chosen to succeed him ; but after a reign of 14 months 
he shared the same fate with Caracalla. 
Q. Vv^ho succeeded Macrinus ? 

A. Ileliogabalus, who, after a wicked reign of 4 years, 
was put to death in the 18th year of his age, and was 
succeeded by liis kinsman Alexander ; a man of great 
learning and consummate modesty. He delighted in the 
arts of peace, but was ready to expose himself in war. 
Q. Did he reign long ? 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 95 

A. No ; the northcT'ii barbarians who had begun their 
depredations^ now passing the Danube and invading the 
empire, he miurched to meet them, and met with some 
success ; but was cut off by his own soldiers, in a muti- 
ny, in the 29th year of iiis age, and of tlie Christian era 
235. 

Q. Wlio succeeded him ? 
. A. Maximin, a man of gigantic stature, who was dis- 
tinguished for military achievements abroad, but v/as hat- 
ed for his cruelties at home. He defeated the Germans 
in several battles ; but his army being at last tired with 
toil and hunger, mutinied, while they lay before Aquileia, 
and he was slain in 238 ; after v/hich Papienus and Bal- 
binus enjoyed the supreme authority, until the praetorian 
bands murdered them both, and meeting by accident 
with Gordianus a youth of 1 6, they instantly declared 
him emperor on the spot. 

Q. Did the pr^torian bands permit him to reign 
Alone ? 

A. No ; they obliged him to admit Philip the praeto- 
rian prefect, to share in the imperial authority. This 
prefect slew his colleague in the 6th year of his reign, 
but met v/ith the same fate from the revolt of his gene- 
ral Decius, in the year 243. 

Q. Did Decius succeed him in the empire ? 

A. Yes ; and after his exaltation, appeared disposed 
to consult the good of the empire j but fighting against 
tlie barbarous nations, who were now accustomed to in- 
vade the empire, was slain, in 251, and was succeeded by 
Gallus, who suffered the state to fall into numerous 
disorders. Peace was bought with foreign enemies 
abroad, while the Christians v/cre persecuted at home. 
At length his own general jEmilianus revolted against 
him, and the emperor and his son were slain in a battle 
which they fought against the insurgents, in 255- 



96 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Q. Was JEmillaiius chosen emperor ? 
A. No ; the senate refused to acknowledge him, and 
an army that was stationed near the Alps chose Valeri- 
an their own commander to succeed in the empire ; bufr- 
he was afterwards taken prisoner by Sapor king of Per- 
sia, and treated in the most ignominious manner. 

Q. Who succeeded to the throne ? 

A. GalHenus, the son of the unfortunate Valerian ; 
who promised to revenge his father's cause ; but hav- 
ing established himself in his authority, he remained 
inactive, and gave himself up to ease and luxury. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. It was at this time that no less than thirty per- 
sons claimed the supreme authority, who are generally 
known in history by the name of the thirty tyrants. Gal- 
lienusled an army against one of these, and was slain by 
his own soldiers at the siege of Milan. He was suc- 
ceeded by Flavius Claudius, who reigned two years, and 
died of a pestilential feverin Pannonia, as he was march- 
ing against the Goths, in 270. 

Q. What was the character of his successor ? 

A. He was bold, active, and enterprising. His name 
"Was Aurelian. 

Q. What was the most remarkable event of his 
reign ? 

A. The defeat of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and 
empress of the east. Aurelian was slain in 275, and suc- 
ceeded by Tacitus, who, after a reign of six montLs, di- 
ed of a fever while he was on his mp.rch against tlie, 
Persians. His successor, Probus, was slain by his sol- 
diers on his march to Greecej in 282. 

Q. Who succeeded Probus ? 

A. Carus ; but he was soon after struck dead by light- 
ning. His son Numerianus, who succeeded to the 
throne, was inconsolable for his death, and brought such 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 97 

a disorder upon his eyes by weeping, that he was obliged 
to be carried with the army shut up in a close litter. 

Q. Did not his fither-in-law Asper attempt to usurp 
the throne ? 

A. Yes ; with this view he ordered Numerianus to be 
secretly murdered, still pretending that the emperor 
was alive. But the fraud at length being detected, Di- 
oclesian, a distinguished commander, was chosen em- 
peror, and slew Asper with his own hand in 284. 

Q. What were his conquests ? 

A. He gained many victories over the northern bar- 
barians who infested the empire ; but during his reign 
a persecution was raised against the Christians. Both 
he and his partner resigned their command, and died in 
retirement. 

Q. Who succeeded to the empire ? 

A. Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius. The first 
was virtuous, valiant, and merciful ; the latter brave, but 
brutal and cruel. Upon their coming into full power, 
they agreed to divide the empire ; Constantius was ap- 
pointed to govern the western parts. He died in Bri- 
tain and appointed Constantine his son as his succes- 
sor. Galerius was seized with a very extraordinary dis- 
order with which he expired, after having languished 
nearly a year. 

Q. When did Constantine, surnamed the Great, whom 
you have mentioned, come to the throne? 

A. In the year 311. 

Q. Had he any competitors ? 

A. Yes ; the principal of whom was Maxentius, who 

was at this time in possession of Rome, and was a firm 

asserter of paganism. In Constantine's march against 

I the usurper, he was converted to Christianity by a very 

\ extraordinary appearance. About sun-set, it is said, by 

I some historians, he saw a luminous cross in the heavensy 

I 



98 • ANCIENT HISTORY. 

with an inscription signifying that in that sign he shoukl 
overcome. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The emperor was so far affected, that he caused 
a standard to be made displaying the cross as it had 
appeared to him in the heavens, after which he consult- 
ed with several of the principal teachers of Christianity, 
and made a public avowal of that sacred persuasion. 

Q. In what manner did the emperor proceed ? 

A. He entered Italy with ninety thousand foot, and 
eighty thousand horse ; and advanced almost to the 
gates of Rome. Maxentius advanced from the city 
with an army of one hundred and seventy thousand foot, -. 
and eighteen thousand horse. The engagement was 
for some time fierce and bloody, till his cavalry being 
routed, victory declared upon the side of his opponent, 
raid he himself was drowned in his flight by the break- 
ing down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Ty- 
ber. Constantine upon entering the city, disclaimed all 
praises which the senate and people were ready to of- , 
fer, ascribing his success to a superior power. 

Q. Was Constantine received as emperor after this , 
concjuest ? 

A. Yes ; he was universally acknowledged ; and con- 
tributed all in his power to promote religion and to en-i 
courage learning, which had long been on the decline, 
and was almost extinct in the empire. His colleague 
Licinius was attacked by Maximin in the east, but he 
was defeated ; and while endeavouring to raise a new ' 
army, died of an extraordinary madness. Licinius, not 
contented with this victory and his share in the empire, 
and aspiring to reign alone, was twice defeated by Con- 
stantine, and finally ordered to be put to death. 

Q. Did Constantine continue the seat of his empire 
in Italy ? 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 99 

A. No; dissatisfied with the situation of Rome, and 
ambitious of being handed down to posterity as the 
founder of a new capital; he detei mined to build a city 
which should bear his own name, and which should ex- 
ceed Rome in situation, splendour, and magnificence. 

Q. Where did he fix the seat of his empire ? 

A. At Byzantium, situate on a rising ground, com- 
manding the streight which unites the Euxine and Me- 
diterranean. Here he raised sumptuous public edifices, 
built many Christian churches; and spared no pains cr 
expense to render Constantinople, v/hich the city was to 
be henceforward called, th^ pride and wonder of the 

world. 

Q. In what year did he remove his court there ? 

A. In the year cf Rome 1084, and of the Christian 

era 330. 

Q. What effect had this change ? 

A. The empire, which had long before been in a most 
declining state, was, by this measure, precipitated in its 
downfal. It never after resumed its former splendour, 
but like a ilowcr transplanted into a foreign cUme, lan- 
guished by degrees, and at length sunk into nothing. 
The seat of the empire was scarcely renioved, before 
the savage nations broke in upon the Roman territories. 
Constantine indeed gave them several severe checks, 
and confined them within their bounds : but in succeed- 
ing times the case was greatly altered. After dividing 
the empire among liis three sons, he v.as taken ill and 
died at Nicomedia, in the 61st year cf his age and of 
the Christian era 342. 
■ Q. What followed his death ? 

A. From this period the condition of the empire be- 
came desperate ; no wisdom could obviate its decay, no 
courage oppose the evils that si^rroiUKied it on every 
side. The changing the seat of the empire from Rome 



100 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

to Constantinople J occasioned the most injurious effects- 
Withdrawing the Roman legions from the Rhine and 
Danube to the east, destroyed the western barriers of the 
empire j and h\id it open to invaders. The northern bar- 
barians, who at first were unknown to the Ilomans, 
had now become so formidable, and arose in such 
numbers, that the earth seemed to produce a new race 
of mankind. Rome, now known by the name of the 
western empire, in contradistinction to Constantinople, 
wliich ^vas called the eastern, weakened by this division, 
became the prey of these barbarous nations. 

Q. What was the character of the emperors who had 
to contend with this people ? 

A. Generally speaking, they were neither furnished 
with coumge nor conduct to oppose them. Their resi- 
dence in Abia, enervated their manners and enfeebled 
their exertions. Sunk into softness, they shewed them- 
selves with less frequency to the soldiers, became more 
indolent, fonder of domestic pleasures, and more ab- 
stracted from the empire. 

Q. Give me a cursory view of these emperors ? 

A. Constantius, who succeeded Constantine and reign- 
ed 38 years, was weak, timid and unsuccessful. Julian 
his successor surnamed the apostate, in consequence of 
his relapsing into paganism, was a more valiant prince. 
-He drove the barbarians, who luid taken fifty towns up- 
on the Rhine, cut of their new settlements, and his 
name was a terror to them during liis reign, which last- 
ed two years. Jovian and Valentinian had virtue and 
strength suiTicient to preserve the empire from mme- 
diately falling under its enemie«. But during the reign 
of Valens, who succeeded them, an event occurred 
which hastened the universal destruction. 

Q. What was this ? 

A. The Huns, a savage people who inhabited the 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 101 

country between the Palus JVIoeotis, the mountains of 
Caucasus and the Caspian sea, passed the Thracian 
Bosphorus, and fell upon the Goths, who fled with con- 
sternation ; and presenting themselves upon the banks 
of the Danube, entreated the Romans to allow them a 
place of refuge. 

Q. Did Valens grant them their request ? 
A. Yes ; he gave them a residence in Thrace, but 
left them destitute of all needful supplies. Stimu- 
lated therefore by hunger and resentment, they soon 
after rose against their protectors ; and, in a dreadful 
engagement which was fought near Adrianople, they 
cut off Valens himself and the greatest part of his army. 
In this mamerthe Roman forces grew weaker; so 
that the emperors were obliged to hire one body of bar- 
barians to oppose another. 

Q. What effect had this expedient ? 
A. It was of use in circumstances of immediate dan- 
ger ; but when those were over, the Romans found 
it as difiicult to free themselves from their new allies, as 
from their former enemies. 
Q. Who succeeded Valens? 

A. Theodosius ; whose valour and conduct in some 
measure impeded the destruction commenced in the 
time of Valens ; but upon his death the enemy became 
irresistible. A large body of troops were called in to 
assist the regular forces of the empire, under the com- 
mand of Alaiic their king. This Ciothic prince, who s 
represented as brave, impetuous and enterprising, per- 
ceiving the weakness of the state, and how incompetent 
Arcadius and Honorius, the successors of Theodosius, 
were to the securing of it ; and being instigated by Ru- 
tinus, who had designs upon the throne, he declared war 
against his employers, and fought the armies of the eiiOr 

I 2 



i02 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

pirc for some years with various gmcccss. As his troops 
were cut off, he received supplies from liis native forests, 
and at length, putting his deep-luid schemes into ex- 
ecution, passed the Alps, and poured dov/n like a torrent 
upon the fruitful vallies of Italy. 

Q. What effect had this upon the inhabitants ? 

A. They beheld with terror and astonishment, a 
dreadful enemy, ravaging in the midst of their country ; 
while their wretched emperor Honoriu8, who was then 
in Ravenna, seemed only resolved to keep up his digni- 
ty, and to refuse any accommodation. The inhctbitants 
of Rome f^dt tlic calamity with double aggravation. 
That great city, whicli had long reigned as mistress of 
the world, now saw itself besieged by an army of fierce 
and terrible barbarians ; and beim?; crov/ded with inhabi- 
tants, was reduced by the extremities of pestilence and 
famine to the most deplorable situation. 

Q. What was tlie conduct of the senate ? 

A. Urged by the extremity of their situation, they 
raised an immense treasure by taxes, and by stripping 
the heathen temples ; and thus at length bought off thos€« 
fierce invaders. 

Q. Did Alaric persist in any further hostilities? 
A. Yes ; he soon after returned. The condition in 
which he found the imperial city, sufficiently manifested 
the degeneracy of its inhabitants, and the possibility of 
its conquest. It had long been the resort of all nations, 
and the receptacle of those, whose follies and vices pro- 
ved the different countries of their birth. To the incapa- 
cities of a weak government, the general of the Goths 
opposed intrepidity and military skill. His army, 
mdeed, reflected the image of the ancient Romans at 
that momentous period of their history, when the fruit- 
less attempt of Hannibal to conquer his enemies, served 
only to drtiw forth the full energy of their character. 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. lOS 

He found the city unprepared for his attacks ; he enter 
ed it amid the silence of the night, and directed his 
march by the conflagration of palaces. The slaughter 
was dreadful, the spoils immense, and the holy faith of 
Christ alone, checked the avarice and lust of the plun- 
derers. To complete the degradation of the imperial 
city, the sons and daughters of consuls and patricians 
attended the festive board, and were doomed to drag the 
chains of the haughty Goths, who displayed their tri- 
umphant banner, waving over the prostrate eagle. 

Q. When did this happen ? 

A. Ill the year of Rome 1 163, and of the ChristiaE 
era 410. 

Q. What was the fate of the empire ? 

A. The capital being ransacked several times, and 
Italy over-run by barbarous invaders, under various de- 
nominations, from the remotest skirts of Europe ; the 
western emperors for some time continued to hold the 
title, without the power of royalty. Honorius lived till 
he saw himself stripped of the greatest part of his do- 
minions ; and at length, upon the abdication of Augustu- 
lus, the very name of ■: uiperor of the west expired, in 
the 476th year of the Christian era. 

Q. What time did this empire flourish ? 

A. The rise, aggrandisement, decline and fall of the 
Roman power, are included within the compass of twelve 
centuries. This miglity empire, like the majestic tem- 
ples that adorned her cr.pital, was broken into fragments, 
and divided among numerous nations. At the end of 
that period, by the incursions of foreign armies, the 
first foundations of those kingdoms were laid, which are 
now tlie most distinguished in the history of the v/estern 
world. The Saxons contended successfully with the 
nations, for the possession of Britain. Gaul and Spain 
were divided between the Franks, Visigoths, Suevi, 



104 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

and Burgundians ; Africa was exposed t© the Vandals and 
Moors ; and Italy was filled with an army of Goths and 
Lombards. Constantinople, which continued for some 
centuries after tho reign of its celebrated founder to 
•give an Imperfect representation of imperial splendour, 
•was finally taken' by the Turks with its dependant ter- 
ritories. 

Q. It appears, that, notwithstanding the external mag- 
nificence of i^ome, r.nd her prosperity during the reign 
of AugustUB and his immediate successors, the manners 
of the people underwent a great change ; and that tlie 
state contained within her bosom the causes of her own 
decay ; what were the principal of those which occasi- 
oned the downfall of this great empire ? 

A. It may bo»atlnbuicd to tlirce causes: The extinc- 
tion of patriotism ; the iritroduction of luxury ; and the 
neglect of the ariciciit modes of education. 

Q. Explain the first of those causes ? 

A. The indiscriminate admission of all the subjects 
of the empire to the freedom of the city, although a con- 
ciliutimr, was a most impolitic measure. Instead of 
raising the natives of the provinces, to the dignity of 
Romans, this privilege produced th- opposite effect, 
and sunk the latter to a level with the former. The 
ri'^-ht of citizenship was rendered of no value, by being 
so widely disused. The people were no longer ac- 
tuated by the same love of independence, or the same 
detestation of ser^iiily. They looked r^o m.ore v/ith a 
jealous eye upon the power of the senate or the prero- 
gatives of the patricians ; and undis.in;^uis'ied -in the 
crowds of new competitors for the same privileges, they 
gradually sunk into insignificance. The profusion and 
extravagance of the rich, were displayed in the celebra- 
tion of the public games. The gladiators and the races 
of the charioteers were exhibited to the dissolute crowds ; 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 105 

and the licentious productions of the stage, often repre- 
sented with all the attractions of splendid decorations, and 
crowded processions, vitiated the general taste, inflamed 
the passions of youth, and encouraged dissipation and 
immorality of conduct, in persons of every class. 

Q. Explain the second cause of its dowi:tfal, the intro- 
duction of luxury ? 

A. Its gradual progress may be traced from the 
destruction of Carthage. Profusion and extravagance 
began to prevail as soon as the precious metals vv'ere in- 
troduced in abundance. Voluptuousness usurped the 
place of temperance ; indolence succeeded to activity j 
self-interest, sensuality and avarice, totally extinguished 
that ardour, which, in ancient times, glo-vyed in every 
breast, for the publit good. The republic, which had 
long withstood the shocks of external violence, fell 
gradually a prey to prosperity. Her gallant chiefs 
had viewed with undavmted 'eye, the approach of Han- 
nibal, and defied the armies of Pyrrhus ; but their 
degenerate descendants, even the posterity of Fabius 
and of Scipio, enriched with the spoils of Greece, and 
surfeited with the luxuries of Asia, leaving their battles 
to be fought by barbarian mercenaries, sunk supinely on 
beds of sloth, and heard the trumpet of battle with 
dismay. 

Q. Explain the last cause of its downfal ? 

A. The education of youth had undergone a com- 
plete change, and prepared their minds for dependance 
and servility. Cornelius had in the purer ages of the 
commonwealth, brought up the Gracchi ; and Julius 
and Augiistus Caesar were reared by Aurelia and Accia ; 
their minds were formed upon principles of honour and 
virtue, and were directed to the most noble pursuits ; 
and they vrerc taught by their illustrious mothers to 
m^bibe the spirit, and emulate the exploits of their 



106 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ancestors. In succeeding- times, the youths were en- 
tmsted to ignorant domestics, who initiated them into 
the various arts of luxury and extravagance. Tutors 
and rhetoricians, who disgraced the name of Greeks, 
repaired to Rome, and "by their insinuating manners, 
versatile dispositions, and frivolous attainments, gained 
a complete ascendency in the noblest families. A fond- 
ness wds formed in early life, for expensive diversions 
and trilling acquirements ; and no time was given to 
the cultivation of the liberal arts, or the study of Ro- 
man or Grecian history. Nor were the modes of 
thinking less vitiated in early years by the progress 
of a specious and destructive philosophy. The priur 
eiples of l'2picurus had been for some time faslii- 
onablc in Rome ; hh disciples advancing far beyond 
the modest scepticism of the academic school, boldly 
denied the providence of a Supreme Ruler of the 
universe, and openly mabitained that death was the ex- 
tinction of all existence. These tenets gave a fatal 
blow to the established religion, and were calculated 
to undermine the great bulwarks of moral obligation. 

The Roman youth, v/lio resorted to Athens and other 
seats of learning, were tliuo taught to despise the ce- 
remonies and deride the raaxin>s of their national belief, 
a firm adherence to which, had been the honour of their 
ancestors, and liad operated powerfully upon their mar- 
tial efforts. 

Q. Does not the history of th.is empire exhibit a very 
instructive example to mankind ? 

A. Yes ; the Romans illustiious as they were for the 
dignity of their cliaracter,ihcir martial prowess, and the 
extent of their empire, hold forth a splendid light for the 
guidance of mankmd. Their virtues in the prosperi- 
ty of the commonwealth, and their vices in its decline, 
fiirn;sh examples and cautions to persons of all sue- 



ELEVENTH EPOCHA. 107 

cecding times. In those kings and emperors, who 
were remarkable for purity of character, monarchs may 
find examples worthy of their imitation ; and common- 
wealths may be taught, from the disorders of their fac- 
tions, what limits to prescribe to the ambition of the 
wealthy? and what curb to impose upon the licentious- 
ness of the populace. To be conversant with this im- 
portant history, is to view mankind engaged in the full 
exercise of patriotism, courage and talents j or to con- ' 
template them enervated by luxury, debased by corrup- 
tion, and sunk into tlie most abject disgrace. 



MODERN HISTORY, 



EPITOMISED. 



ENGLAND. 



Q. yj AVING noticed the most intercstmg oc- 
XjL currences, from the creation to the fall 
of the Roman Empire in the west ; you will now pro- 
ceed with the history of succeeding times, by taking a 
summary view of the several empires and kingdoms, 
Avhich liave been founded since that period. But in or- 
der that this view may be the more satisfactory, the ori- 
ginal inhabitants of each country, tliat has not hereto- 
fore come particularly under your notice, must be 
briefly considered. This arrangement, indeed, will 
sometimes carry you back beyond the period assigned 
for modern history : but as the subject is intimately con- 
nected with it, and as the omission of a short account of 
the origin of the modern kingdoms of Europe, would 
have deprived you of necessary information, it is 

K 



110 MODERN HISTORY. 

thought best to take this retrospective view. England 
will first come under your notice ; but as the history of" 
this country has been already epitomised, and is gene- 
rally read, a shorter narrative may be given of it than of 
those with which you are less acquainted.— Inform me 
what are the first accounts we have of that country ? 

A. Before the Romans got possession of the island, 
the Britons, v/ho then possessed the country, were di- 
vided into several nations or tribes, each of which was 
governed by its own king. And after Britain became 
a member of the Roman empire, many of their tribes 
had their proper kings, who were suffered to govern by 
their own laws, provided they were tributary. 
Q. Who succeeded the Romans ? 
A. The government returned to the Britons, who 
chose for their king, Constantine, brother of Aldroinus, 
king of Bretagne in France, a prince of the British 
blood ; to whom succeeded Constantine, his son ; then 
Vortiger, who usurped the crown, and, to miaintain his 
usurpation, first called in the Saxons. 
Q. What followed ? 

A. The Saxons having been introduced into the island, 
in time, wholly subdued it. Although they were over- 
thrown in many battles by king Vortimer, the succes- 
sor of Vortiger, and afterwards by king Arthur, yet 
the Britons, upon the death of that monarch, were forced 
to retreat, and exchange the rich parts of Britain for the 
mountains of Wales. 

Q. In what manner was the country divided by the 
Saxons ? 

A. Into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, 
which -continued for several ages. But after the Sax- 
ons had established themselves in all the desirable parts 
»f the island, and had no longer the Britons to contend 



ENGLAND. Ill 

with, they began to quarrel among themBelves. A 
country divided into a number of petty independent 
principalities, must ever be subject to contention, as 
jealousy and ambition have more frequent incentives to 
operate. After a series, therefore, of battles, treasons, 
and stratagems ; all these petty kingdoms fell under the 
povvxr of Egbert, king of Wessex, whose merit deserv- 
ed dominion, and w^hose prudence secured his conquests. 
He was crowned king of England, at Winchester, in 
SI9. ' 

Q. What followed? 

A. Peace and unanimity had been scarcely established, 
when the Danes began to level their fury against Eng- 
land. In about five years after the accession of Egbert, 
their invasions became truly formidable. From that 
time they continued with unceasing ferocity, until the 
kingdom was reduced to a state of. the mosrt distressful 
bondage. After frequent repulses, they at length re- 
solved upon making a settlement in the country, and 
landing upon the isle of Thanet, stationed themselves 
there. In this place they kept their ground, notwitlj- 
standing a bloody victory gained over them by Ethel- 
wolf, the successor of Egbert. 

Q. Who succeeded Ethclwolf ? 

A. Ethelbakl ; who after an inglorious reign of three 
years, was succeeded by his brother l^lthelred, a brav^ 
commander, but whose valour was insufHcient to repress 
the Danish incursions. During his reign they penetrFtt- 
ed into Mercia, and took up their winter quarters at 
Nottingham ; from whence the king attempted to dis- 
lodge them, but re(5^eiyed a wound in the battle, of which 
he died. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His brother Alfred, afterwards surnamed the 
Grc;at, who found the kingdom in the most deplorable 



112 MODERN HISTORY. 

situation. The Danes had subdued Northumberland 
and East Anglia, and had penetrated into the heart of 
Wessex. The Mercians were united against him, and 
his dependance upon the other provinces of the empire 
was but precarious : the lands lay uncultivated, throug'h 
fear of continual incursions ; and all the churches and 
monasteries were burned to the ground. In this situ- 
ation of affairs, no thing- appeared but objects of ter- 
ror; and the wisdom and virtue of Alfred alone, were 
found sufficient to bring back happiness, security, and 
©rder. 

Q. Give me a more particular account of his charac- 
ter ? 

A. He seemed born not only to defend his bleeding 
country, but even to adorn humanity. He had given 
early proofs of those great virtues, which afterwards 
gave splendour to kis reign j and Was anointed by pope 
Leo, a future king, when sent by his father to Rome. 
On his return, he became every day, more the object of 
his father's affections ; but being indulged in youthful 
pleasures he was much neglected in his education ; and 
had reached his twelfth year, before he was made ac- 
quainted with the lowest elements of literature. 

Q. In what manner did he become better informed ? 

A. His genius was first roused by the recital of some 
Saxon poems, which recounted the praises of heroes. 
This species of erudition, which is sometimes able to 
make a considertible progress even among barbarians, 
expanded those noble and elevated sentiments which he 
had received from nature. Encouraged by the queers 
his mother, and stimulated by his own ardent inclina- 
tion, he soqn learned to read those compositions, and pro- 
ceeded from them to a knowledge of Latin authors, 
who directed his taste, and rectified his ambition. 

Q. What was his first expedition ? 



ENGLAND. 113 

A. Against the Danes. He had scarcely come to the 
crown before he was obhged to take the field : and not- 
withstandmg his success at first; the ravciges of this 
barbarous people became so distressful, and their pow- 
er so extensive, tliat at lengtli, he was reduced to the 
wretched necessity, of relinquishing the ensigns of his 
dignity, and concealing himself from the public eye. 
His solicitude, however, for his country's welfare, still 
continued, and when a suitable opportunity offered, he .. 
summoned his subjects to meet him in arms, returned 
from his retreat, and totally subdued his enemies. 

Q. What was the extent of his power after this con- 
quest '' 

A. He possessed a greater extent of territory, than 
had ever been enjoyed by any of his predecessors : the 
kings of Wales did him homage for their possessions ; the 
Northumbrians received a king of his appointing : and 
no enemy appeared, to give him the least apprehensions, 
or excite any alarm. In this state of tranquillity which 
lasted twelve years, Alfred was employed in cultivating 
the arts of peace, and repairing the damages which the 
kingdom had sustained by war. 

Q. Did he found any literary institutions ? 

A. Yes; he founded, or at least re-established the uni- 
versity of Oxford, endowed it with many privileges, and 
gave it in his own example, the strongest incentives to 
study, He made a considerable progress in the differ- 
ent studies of grcanmar, rhetoric, philosophy, archi- 
tecture, and geometry. He was an excellent historian, 
understood music, and was acknowledged to be the best 
Saxon poet of the age in which he lived. He died in 
^901. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Edward, who died in 924 and was suc- 
ceeded by his natural son, Athelstan. After a reign of 

K2 



114 MODERN HISTORY. 

sixteen years, he died, and was succeeded by his bro- 
ther Edmund, who, like the rest of his predecessors, 
met with disturbances from the Northumbrians on his 
accession to the throne ; but his activity soon defeated 
their attempts. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His brother Edred, in 9 46, who implicitly sub- 
mitted to the direction of Dunstan the monk, both in 
church and state ; and the kingdom was in danger of 
beinji^ turned into a papal province by this zealous eccle- 
siastic ; but was checked by the death of the king, in 
955. His sons being yet unfit to govern, Edwy his ne- 
phew ascended the throne. He was a prince of great 
personal accomplishments and a martial disposition ; 
but immediately upon his accession, he was involved 
in a quarrel with the monks, whose rage, neither his 
accomplishments, nor his virtues, could mitigate. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his brother Edgar, who being placed on the 
throne by the infiuence of the monks, affected to be en- 
tirely guided by their direction in all his succeeding 
transactions. He died in 9 7" 3, and was succeeded by 
Edward, surnamed the martyr ; who was stabbed by or- 
der of his mother-in-law, in 979. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His half brother Ethelred H, a weak and irresolute 
monarch, incapable of governing the kingdom, or pro- 
vidhig for its safety. During his reign the Danes were 
daily gaining ground, and as they lived indiscriminately 
among the English, a resolution was taken for a gene- 
ral massacre. Ethelred, by a policy incident to weak 
princes, embraced the cruel resolution of putting them 
all to the sword, which was effected in one day. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Sweyn, king of Denmark, who had been informgil 



ENGLAND. 115 

©f the treacherous cruelty of the English, appeared off 
the western coast with a large fleet, and soon after oblig- 
ed Ethelred to fly into Normandy, and made himself 
master of the country. Canute, afterwards surnamed 
the Great, succeeded Sweyn as king of Denmark and 
general of the Danish forces in England. The contest 
between him and Edmund Ironside, successor to Ethel- 
red, was managed with great obstinacy and perseve- 
rance ; but E'dmund being murdered by his two cham- 
berlains, at Oxford, in 1017, Ca.nute was left in peace- 
able possession ofthe whole kingdom. 
Q. When did he die ? 

A. In the H.th year of his reign ; and ofthe Christian 
era 1036, leaving behind him three sons, Sweyn, who 
was crowned king of Norway, Hardicanute,who was put 
in possession of Denmark, and Karold who succeed- 
ed his father on the P nglish throne. 
Q. By whom was Harold succeeded ? 
A. By his brother Ilardicanute, who after a short and 
ingloiious reign of two years, was succeeded in 1041 by 
Edward, surnamed tlic Confessor, a monarch of the 
Saxon line, who was by general cojisent crowned king. 
He died in 1066, and was succeeded by Harold, son of 
the earl of f^.ent; but his pretensions were opposed by 
William, duke of Normandy, who insisted that the 
crown belonged of right to him, it being bequeathed to 
)iim by Edward the Confessor. 
Q. What followed ? 

A. He landed in Sussex, September 29, 1066, de- 
feated the English troops at Hastings, (>ctober 14th fol- 
lowing, when Harold, (who was the last of the Saxon 
monarchs) was slain, and William assumed the title of 
Conqueror, and was crowned at W^estminster Decern^ 
ber 25th, 1066. 
Q. When did he die ? 



116 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. In 1087, and was succeeded by liis son William' 
II. He invaded Normandy with success, in 1089 ; but 
was killed by accident, as he was hunting in New Fo- 
rest, by Sir Walter Tyrrel, August 2, llOO, and was 
succeeded by his brother Heniy I. who defeated his 
brother Robert in Normandy 1107 ; took possession of 
that country, and sent liim prisoner to England ; where 
he detained him a prisoner, during the remainder of 
his life. Henry's only son was shipwrecked and lost in 
coming from Normandy in 1 120, and he died at Lyons 
in 1135. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His nephew Stephen ; though Henry by will had 
left his dominions to his daughter Matilda, who had 
married Henry IV'. emperor of Germany : the empe- 
ror dying in 1127, she landed in England, claimed 
her right and was crowned ; but soon after vvas defeated 
at Wmchester in 1141. She retired to France in 1 147 
and died in 1 167. 

Q. When was Stephen crowned ? 

A. In 1135. During the contest with Matilda, he 
was taken prisoner by the earl of Gloucester ; but was 
again recognized as king, taken from the dungeon, and 
placed upon the throne. He made peace with Henry, 
Matilda's son, in 1153. He died in 1 1 54, and was suc- 
ceeded by Henry II. who invaded Ireland and conquered 
it in 1 172, and took the, king of Scotland prisoner in 
1175. His son Pichard rebelled against him, in 1185, 
and he died of grief in Normandy, cursing his sons, July 
.6, 1189. 

Q, Who succeeded Henry II ? 

A. His son Richard I. He conquerred the island of 
Cyprus, and there married Berengera, daughter of the 
king of Navarre in 1191 ; but in the year after he was 
arrested near Vienna by the duke of Austria^ and ran- 



ENGLAND, 117 

s«m-ed for 40,000/. He returned to England in March 
1193, was wounded. with an arrow vX Chalus in Nor- 
mandy and died April 6, 1 199. 
Q. Who succeeded Richard ? 

A. His brother John ; he 'divorced his wife Avisa, 

and married Isabella, daughter of the count of Ango- 

lesme, in 1200. In two years after, he took his ne- 

' phew Arthur who had a right to the crown, prisoner, 

whom he murdered. He imprisoned the queen, and 

banished all the clergy in 1203 ; was excommunicated 

; in the year following, and surrendered his crown to 

j Pandolf, the pope's legate, in May 1213 ; was absolved 

1 in July following, and obliged by the barons to confirm 

magna charta, in 1215. He died in the following year. 

Q. Who succeeded John ? 

A. His son Henry HI. He married Eleanor, daugh.- 
ter of the count of Provence, in 1236. In 1248, he 
pledged his crown, plate, and jewels for money ; and 
was obliged by his nobles, to resign the power of a so- 
vcrci;^!, and sell Normandy and Anjcu to the French, 
ill 12j8: was taken prisoner at Lewis in 1264; and 
wounded at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. He died 
in 1272. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 
A. By his son Edward I. who married Eleanor, prin- 
cess of Castile, in 1253. He was wounded m the Holy 
land with a poisoned dagger, but recovered by his prin- 
cess sucking out the venom, in 1271, and was proclaim- 
ed king on the death of his father, in 1272. He landed 
m England in July, and was crowned in August 1274. 
In 1282 he reduced the Welsh princes ; in 1290 his 
queen died of a fever ; nine years after which, he mar-^ 
ried Margaret, sister to the king of France. He con- 
quered Scotland in 1296, and died in 1307. 
Q. Who succeeded Edward I ? 



118 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. His son Edward II. ^vho had been created prince 
of Wales in 1 300, and was the first king of England's 
son that had the title. He married Isabel daughter of 
the king of France in January 1308, and was crowned in 
February following. In 1310, the barons obliged him to 
vest the government in tv;enty-one persons; and in 
1325, he declared his queen and all her adherents ene- 
mies to the kingdom. Fie was dethroned in January, 
1327, and murdered at Berkeley-castle, in September 
following. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Edward III. wlio had married Philippa, 
daughter of the earl of Hainault, in 1326, and accepted 
the crow^n on his father's forced resignation. He claimed 
the crown of France, in 1329; confined his mother Isa- 
bel, and caused her favourite INIorlimer to be hanged, in 
1330. Three years after, he defeated the Scots at Halle- 
down ; and in 1339, he invaded France. In 1346, he 
defeated the French at Crcssy, and his queen took the 
king of Scotland prisoner. In the following year, he 
took Calais after a year's siege : he instituted the order 
of the garter, in 1349, and died in 1377. 

Q. By Avhom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his grandf)on Richard II. son of Edward the 
Black Prince, who was created duke of Cornwall, in 
1337, and was the first in England that bore the title of 
duke. Edward was afterwards created prince of Wales, 
in 1344. He defeated the French at Poictiers, in 1356, 
and brought their king prisoner to London the year fol- 
lowing. He married Joanna, countess dowager of Hol- 
land, in 1362, and died in 1376. 

Q. Before you proceed with the history of Richard 
II. inform me who was the fourth son of Edward HI. as 
from him Henry VII. descended ? 

A. John of Gaunt was the fourth son of Edward IIL 



ENGLAND. 119 

lie married Blanch, daughter of the duke of Lancaster, 
in 1359, by whom he became possessed of that duke- 
dom and title. She died in ten years after, and in 1372, 
he married the daughter of the king and qu^en of Cas- 
tile and Leon, and took that title. In 1396, he married 
Catharine Swinford, by Avhom he had four children^ in 
the lifetime of his former duchess, who were afterwards 
made legitimate by act of parliament; and from the 
eldest, Henry VIL descended. He died in 1399. 
Q. Proceed with the history of Richard H ? 
A. He was crowned in 1377, married Ann, sister to 
the emperor of Germany in 1382, who died in 1395. 
The year following he married Isabella, daughter of 
the king of France. He caused his uncle Thomas, duke 
of Gloucester, to be smothered in 1397 ; was taken pri- 
soner by his cousin duke of Lancaster, and sent to the 
tower on the 1st of September, 1399; on the 29th he 
resigned his crown, and was succeeded by Henry IV. 
In 1400, he was murdered in Pontefract castle. 
Q. Who was Henry IV. 

A. He was duke of Lancaster, and grandson of Ed- 
ward III. He married ^tary, daughter of the earl of 
Hertford, who died in 1394. He fought with the duke 
of NorfMk in 1397, and was banished ; but returned to 
England in arms, against Richard XL smd deposed him 
on the 29tii of September, 1399, and was crowned on 
the 13th of October following, when he iniitituted the 
•order of the Bath. He married Joan of Navarre, widow 
of the duke of Bretagne, in 1403, and died in 1413. 
Q. Vvlio succeeded Henry IV. ? 
A. His son, Henry V. He had defeated the Welsh 
in two battles, in 1405. He claimed tlie crown of France, 
in 1414, and gained the victory of Agincourt, in the 
following year, in 1416, he pledged his regalia for 
money to push his conquests ; was declared regent, and 



120 MODERN HISTORY. 

and married Catharine of France, in 1 420. He died in 
1422. 

Q, Who succeeded him ? 

A. His infant son Henry VI. He was proclaimed king 
of France, in 142 2, was croM^ned at Westminster, in 
1429, and at Paris, in 1430. He married Margaret, 
daughter of the duke of Anjou, in 1445. Two years 
afterwards, he ordered Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 
his uncle, to be strangled. He was taken prisoner at 
Northampton and deposed, in 1 46 1, by his fourth cousin, 
Edward IV ; was restored to his throne in 1470, and ta- 
ken prisoner again, in 1471. His queen and son were 
also taken prisoner soon afterwards, by Edward : his 
son was killed in cold blood, and he was murdered in 
the same year. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Edward IV. who had been crowned in 1461. He 
sent the earl of Warwick to demand the sister of the 
the queen of France, and, in the mean time, married 
Elizabeth, the widow of Sir John Grey, in 1464. He 
was taken prisoner, by the earl of Warwick in York- 
shire and expelled the kingdom, in 1470 ; returned and 
gained a great victory at Barnet, in the following year, 
and caused the duke of Clarence, his brother, who had 
joined the earl of Vv^arwick, to be drowned in a butt of 
Malmesey wine, in 147S. He dicid in 1483. 

Q. Who succeeded Edward IV * 

A. His son Edward V. a minor of 13 years of age. 
He was conveyed to the tower in May, 1 483, was d'-pos- 
ed in June following,. and with his brother the duke of • 
York, was supposed to be murdered in the tower soon 
after. He was succeeded by his uncle Richard HI. duke 
of Gloucester, brother to Edward IV. ; who was made 
protector of England on the 1 7th of May, elected king 
on the 20th of June, and crowned on the 6th of July* 



ENGLAND. 12i 

1483. He was slain in battle, at Bosworth field, in 
1485. 

Q. By whom was Richard III. succeeded ? 

A. By Henry VH. He defeated Richard HI. and was 
crowned in October, 1485. The followingyear he mar- 
ried Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. In 1502, his 
eldest son Arthur died, and his queen, in 1503. He 
married his daughter Margaret, to James IV. of Scot- 
land, in 1 504, from whom James I. of England descend- 
ed. He died in 1509. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his son, Henry VIII. who married Catharine, 
infanta of Spain, widow of his brother Arthur, on the 3d 
of June, 1509, and was crowned on the 24th following. 
He received the title of Defender of the Faith, in 1521 ; 
was styled Head of the Church in 1 53 1 . In the follow- 
ing year he married Ann Bullen privately, and divorc- 
ed Catharine in 1533. He was excommunicated by 
pope Paul, in 1535, and Catharine, his first queen, died 
in the following year. He beheaded Ann, his second 
queen. May 19, and married Jane Seymore May 20, 
1536, who died in the following year. He suppressed 
the religious foundations in England and Wales, in 
1539 ; married Ann of Cleves January 6, divorced her 
July 10, and married Catharine Howard August 8, 
1540. He beheaded her and lady Rochford in 1542 ; 
married Catharine Par, his sixth wife in 1543, and died 
in 1547. 

Q. Who succeeded Henry VIII. ? 

A. His son Edward VI. He fell sick of the small-pox 
and measles, in 1552, and died of a consumption at 
Greenwich in the year following ; and was succeeded, 
iigreeably to his will, by his cousin Jane Gray, who 
was proclaimed on the 9th of July, 1553 ; deposed and 

I. 



122 MODERN illSTORY. 

sent to the tower on the 28th following, and beheaded 
with lord Dudley her husband, on the 12th of February, 
1554. 

Q. By whose order was she beheaded ? 

A. By the order of Mary, daughter of Henry VIII. who 
had been crowned October 1, 1553. She married Phi- 
lip of Spain the following year, and died in 1558. 

Q. Who succeeded Mary ? 

A. Her half-sister Elizabeth, who had been sent pri- 
soner to the tower, in 1554 ; was crowned January 15, 
1559 ; imprisoned Mary of Scots, who had fled to Eng- 
land for protection in 1568, and who on the 8th of Fe- 
bruary, 1587, was beheaded. In the following year Eli- 
zabeth defeated the Spanish Armada. In 1601 she be- 
headed her favourite, the earl of Essex, and died at 
Richmond, in 1603. 

Q. Wlio succeeded Elizabeth ? 

A. James I. who w^s crowned James VI. of Scotland, 
in 1567; married Ann princess of Denmark, in 1589, 
and was proclaimed king of England in March, and 
crowned in July, 1603. He married his daughter Eli- 
zabeth, to Frederick, prince palatine of the Rhine, in 
1612, from whom George I. descended. He lost his 
queen in 1619, and died in 1625. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his son Charles I. who married Henrietta of 
France. Fie went to the House of Commons and demand- 
ed five members, in Jan. 1642 ; raised his standard at 
Nottingham, on the 25th of August following, and put ^}^ 
himself into the hands of the Scots at Newark, on the 
5th of May, 1645. He was sold by the Scots for 
200,0001. on the 8th of August following ; escaped from 
Hampton court in July 1 648, but was confined in Wind- 
sor Castle, in December following, and removed to St. 
James's on the 19th of January 1649; was brought to 



ENGLAND. 123 

tfial the next day, condemned the 27thj and beheaded 
at White-hall the 30th of the same month. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Oliver Cromwell Avas proclaimed protector, De- 
cember 16, 1653 ; elected king, but refused the title 
May 8, 1657. He died at White-hall in 1658, and his 
son Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector ; but 
he was deposed in 1659, and died it Cheshunt, in 
Hertfordshire, in 1702. 

Q. Who succeeded Kichard Cromwell ? 

A. Charles H. son of Charles I. He escaped into 
Holland in 1648; landed in Scotland in 1650, was 
crowned at Scone, January 1, 1651, restored to his 
throne May 29, 1660, and crowned April 13, 1661. He 
married Catharine, infanta of Portugal, in 1662, aiid 
died in 1685. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his Ijrother James H. who had married Ann 
Hyde in 1660; she died in 1671, and he married the 
princess of Modena in 1673. He was crowned in A- 
pril 1685 ; fled from his palace on the 12th of Decem- 
ber, and left England on the 23d, 1688. He landed at 
Kinsale in Ireland, March 12, 1689, and returned to 
France in July, 1690. He died at Germain's in 1701. 

Q. Who succeeded James H. ? 

A, James, duke of ?iIonmouth, natural son of Charles 
H. Lmded in England, June 11th, and was proclaimed 
king at Taunton, June 20, 1685 ; but he was defeated 
near Bridgewater- July 5, and beheaded on Tower-hill 
July 15, following. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. William, prince of Orange, v/ho married MaiT, 
daughter of James H. landed in England with an army. 
November 4, 1688 ; was proclaimed king, and his prin- 
cess queen, of England, F<ebruary 13, and crowned 



124 ?*ODERN HISTORY. 

April 11, 1689. He landed at Carrickfergus on the 
14th of June, and defeated James II. at the battle of 
Eoyn, on the first of July 1650. lie lost his queen of 
the snr}all-pox in 1694; fell from his horse and broke 
his cellar bone, in Feljruary 1702, and died at Kensing- 
ton on the 8th of March following. 

Q. Who succeeded hira ? 

A. His sister-in-law Ann, second daughter of James 
II. who married prince (jcorge of Denmark, in 1683, 
and was crowned April 23, 1702. She lost her son 
George by a fever, in 1700 ; settled her revenue of the 
first fruits and tenths on the pooi-er clergy, in 1704 
passed the act of union, in 1707, and lost her husband 
in 1708. She died in 1714. 

Q. Who succeeded queen Ann ? 

A. George I. elector of Hanover, who married So- 
phia, daughter of the duke of Brunswick-zell, in 1682. 
He was created duke of Cambridge in 1706, proclaim- 
ed August 1 ; landed at Greenwich September 18, and 
crowned October 20, 1714. He lost his queen in Ger- 
many November 2, 1726, and died in June 1727. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his son George II. who married the princess 
Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Brandenburgh-ans- 
pach, in 1704. He was crowned October 1 1, 1727, and 
married his son Frederick, to Augusta, princess of 
Saxe-gotha in 1736. He lost his queen in 1737 ; defeat- 
ed the French at Dcttingen, in 1743, and lost his son 
Frederick in 175 1. lie died suddenly at Kensington 
in 1760. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. The present George HI. who was born June 4, 
1738, proclaimed October 26, 1760. Fie married Char- 
lotte Sophia (born May 19, 1744) princess of Mecklen- 
burg-streIitz,September 18, 1761, and both were crown- 
ed September 22, following. 



ENGLAND. 125 

Q. Give me some account of the government of Eng- 
and ? 

A. The king of Great Britain, though he is not m all 
respects absolute, yet his dignity and power are very 
great and extensive. He has the supreme right of 
patronage through all England, called patronage-paw- 
mount : he is supreme judge, or lord chief justice, and 
the fountain whence all justice is supposed to be deriv- 
ed. He alone has power to declare war ; to make peace, 
leagues, and treaties ; to s'jnd and receive ambassadors, 
See. He can convoke, adjourn, prorogue, remove, and 
dissolve parliaments ; and can refuse his assent to any 
bill which has passed both houses, without giving a 
reason. He has the nomination of all officers at land 
or sea; of all magistrates, counsellors, and officers of 
state ; of all bishops, and other ecclesiastical dignitaries j 
of bestowing all honours on the hipher and lower no- 
bility. He has the power of determining rewards and 
punishments, can pardon crimes, and remit the penal- 
ties. He is the guardian of idiots ^md lunatics, the recep- 
tacle of all estates when no heir appears, which then re- 
vert or escheat to the king. All treasure trove, or mo- 
nies, goods, 8cc lost, and the owners unknown ; all waste 
ground and lands recovered from the sea ; all mines of 
gold and silver, belong to the king. He is deemed by 
the laws, God's vicegerent, and therefore is supposed to 
have no imperfection ; and the law attributes to him a 
kind of perpetuity ; for, he being a corporation of himself, 
lives for ever He has also abundance of other preroga- 
tives.— -The title of the king is. By the grace of God, of 
the united kiutrdoms of Great Britain, and Ireland, 
King, Defender of the Faith : and, since the time of king 
John, he styles himself /[>,, in his. public instruments 
and letters. The title of Sacred Majesty, or Most Ex- 

L2 



126 MODERN HISTORY. 

cellent Majesty, is given to the king ; and in speaking 
to him the term Sire, or Your Majesty, is used. 

The eldest son of the king of England is born duke- 
of Cornwall; afterward he is created prince of Wales, 
a title first given by Edward V. to his eldest son. Since 
the union of England and Scotland, his titles are, prince 
of Wales, duke of Aquitaine and Cornwall, earl of Ches- 
ter and Flint. He is reputed, in law, as the same person 
with the king. 

Next to the king and princes of the blood, are reck- 
oned the great oiiicers of the crown, whereof there are 
nine, as follow : 

1. The Lord High vSteward of. England ; he was 
formerly the highest oHicer under the king. His busi- 
ness is to officiate at coronations, the arraignment of 
peers, Scc/which when over, he breaks his white staff, 
and with it his commission expires. 

2. The Lord High Chancellor, Avho is, at present, the 
highest person in the kingdom next after tliose of royal 
blood, in civil affairs. His office is to keep the king's 
great seal ; to moderate the rigour of common law ; to 
judge according to equity, conscience, and reason ; and 
to bestow all ecclesiastical benefices in the king's books 
under 201. per arinum. 

3. The Lord High Treasurer, who has the charge 
and government of all the king's revenues kept in the 
exchequer : he is superintendajit over all the officers em- 
ployed in collecting the imposts, customs, tributes, £cc. 
belonging to the crown. 

4. The Lord President of the king's privy council, 
"Whose office is to attend upon the king, to propose bu- 
siness at the council table, and to report to the king the 
transactions there. 

5. The Lord Privy Seal, under whose bands pass all 



ENGLAND. 127 

charters and grants, and pardons signed before they 
come to the great seal ; with divers other matters 
which do not pass by the great seal. 

6. The Lord Great Chamberlain, who presents to the 
king on the coronation-day all his robes, and other parts 
of royal attire. To him belongs the care of providing 
all things in the House of Lords in the time of parlia- 
ment; also the government of the whole palace of 
Westminster ; and the furnishing of Westminster-hall 
against coronations, trials of peers, Sec. He disposes of 
the s.\ ord of state to what lord he pleases to be carried 
before the king, and goes himself on the right hand of 
the sword next the king's person, and the Lord Marshal 
on the left. 

7. The Lord High Constable : whose power and 
jurisdiction was anciently so great, that since 1521, it 
was thought too much for any subject. This officer is 
now created only on occasions of coronations, trials by 
combat. Sec. His power and authority are the same with 
the Earl Marshal, with whom he sits judge in the Mar- 
shal's Court, and takes place of the Karl Marshal. 

8. The Earl Marshal, whose office is to take cogni- 
zance of all matters of wars and arms, to determine con- 
tracts concerning dccnls of arms out of the realm upon 
land, and of war witiiin the realm, which cannot be de- 
termined by common law : he formerly had several 
courts under him, but now only the Marshalsea. 

9. The Lord Hii^h Admiral, who is intrusted with all 
maritime affairs ; as well civil as military ; he hath power 
to commissionatc a vice-admiral, rear-admiral, all sea 
captains, and other officers at sea. To him belong all 
penalties, amerciaments, goods of pirates, felons, Sec", 
as also all stray goods, wrecks at sea, deodands. Sec. 

These are the great streams of government, policy, 
and rule, v^hich flow from the orijginal fountain, the 



128' MODERN HISTORY. 

king, to the common people of the realm ; among 
"vvhom it subdivides, in various ways, into lesser currents 
of power and authority. 

The great courts of judicature, civil and military, 
are seven in number, as follow : 

1. The Privy Council, which is that august assem- 
bly wherein the kin;^ is advis»:d and counselled ; and 
■which consults for the honour, defence, safety and be- 
nefit of the realm; not meddling with matters which 
may be determined by the ordinary courts of justice, 
but matters of complaint and sudden emergencies. 
The members of this honorable council are such as 
the king, of his own i)L'asure, shall choose ; and are 
generally of the highest rank, eminent for wisdom, 
inteu;rity, S::c. They sit at the council-board, when his 
majesty presides ; and at all debates the lowest deli- 
vers his opinion first, and the king last of all declares 
his judgment. , 

2. The Parliament, which is the most high and 
honorable court, wherein the most supreme and abso- 
lute power of the realm consists. This high court or 
assembly consist of two parts or houses, called the 
Higher and Lower House of Parliament. The mem- 
bers are of three sort?, viz. the peerage and baroii]^, 
who represent the hi;-,her part of tl\e commonwealth ; 
the knights, citizens and burgesses, who represent the 
lower part ; and the bishops or prelates, who represent 
the clergy: over ail Avhich the king himself presides. 
The place of meeting is in the king's ancient palace of 
Westminster ; tlie lords in one room, and the commons 
in another. The king, lords, and commons, must all, 
or the greatest part, agree to the making of laws and re- 
pealing them. When a bill has passed through both 
houses, with consent, and received tlie assent of the 
king, in parliament assembled, it is culicd an act of 



I 



ENGLAND. 129 

parliament, a statute and ordinance, a rule and law of 
the land. 

3. The Ili.^h Court of Chancery, because it is de- 
signed to mitigate the rigour of the other courts of 
judicature, is called the court of equity ; and is the origi- 
nal of all other courts. The judge of this court is the 
Lord Chancellor, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, 
whose sentence is definitive without a jury of twelve 
men. The judge has twelve assistants, called Masters 
of Chancery, the first of whom is Master of the Rolls, 
a place of great dignity. Another officer who continu- 
ally attends the judge, is the Cltrk of the Crown, an 
office of very high importance. There are also many 
other officers in this court, which render suits very- 
chargeable and tedious. 

4. The Court of King's Bench, which is next to the 
Parliament, is the highest court at common law. In it 
are handltid the pleas of the crown, or all things which 
concern the loss of life or member of any subject ; as 
also all treasons, felonies, oppressions, misgovernments. 
Sec. In this court arc iour judges, the first of whom is 
called the Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench, 
whose power and jurisdiction are very great. 

5. The Court of Common Pleas, so called because 
therein are debated the usual and common pleas between 
subject and subject, according to the strictest rules gf 
law. None but sergeants at law may plead in this 
court. The first judge is called the Lord Chief Jus- 
tice of the Common Pleas ; anS there are commonly' 
three inferior judges. 

6. The Court of Exchequer, in which are held two 
courts, one of law, the other of equity. In this court 
may sit the Lord Treasurer, the Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer, the Lord Chief Baron, three other Barons 
of the Exchequer, and the Cursitor Baron. This court 



130 MODERN HISTORY. 

tries all causes relating to the king's treasury or re"v*e- 
nue, as touching accounts, disbursements, customs, and 
all fines imposed on any man. 

7. The Court of Admiralty, \vhich is the principal or 
^supreme of the courts held by and under the Lord High 
Admiral. It takes cognizance of all affairs, civil and 
military, on the seas, which are Avithin the jurisdiction 
of the common law : therefore the proceedings in this 
court in all civil matters, are according to the civil 
law, and run in the name of the admiral, and not of 
the king, as in common law. In this court he has a 
lieutenant called Judge of the Admiralty, who is com- 
monly some learned doctor of the civil law. These are 
the great and hi;^h tribunals, or courts of judicature, 
established for the public administration of justice and 
equity. 

For the government of the several counties the king 
has deputed and commissioned several officers with 
power and authority to put in force and execute the 
laws upon the subject. These are the justices of the 
peace, whose office it is to charge and keep the peace of 
the county, and to examine and commit to prison all 
Avho break or disturb the same, and disquiet the king's 
subjects. In order to this, they liold quarterly meet- 
ings at some of the principal towns where a jury of 
twelve men, called the grand inquest, is summoned to 
appear, who, upon oath, are to inquire into the cases 
of all delinquents, and to present them by l)ill guilty 
of the indictment, or not i>;uiity ; the justices after trial, 
punish the former or commit them for further trial at 
the next assizes, and acquit the innocent. This is 
called the quarter-sessions for the county, ^^herifis of 
the county, or the high shcrifi". whose business it is to 
execute the king's mandates, and all writs directed to 
him out of the king's court, to impannel juries, to 



SWEDEN. 131 

bring causes and criminals to trial, to see the sentences, 
both in civil and criminal affairs, executed, and to wait 
on and guard the judges twice a year in their circuits 
for the assizes. Under the sheriff are various officers, 
as under-sheriff, clerks, stewards, bailiffs, constables, 
jailers, beadles. Sec Bailiff of the hundred, a very anci- 
ent officer, but now of small authority. High consta- 
ble was first ordained for the conservation of the peace, 
and view of ^-mour : he disperses warrants and orders 
of the justices of the peace to each petty constable. 
Coroners are two in each county, who are to inquire, by 
a jury of neighbours, how, and by whom, any person 
came by a violent death, and to enter it on record as a 
plea of the crown ; whence they have their name crown- 
ers or coroners. The clerk of the market, whose office 
is to keep a standard of all weights and measures ex- 
actly agreeing with the king's standard in the Exche- 
quer, to seal all weights and mciisures made exactly by 
the standai-d in his custody, and to destroy such as are 
otherwise. 



SWEDEN. 

Q. WHAT was Sweden noted for ? 

A. For having been the native country of the fierce 
and warlike Goths, \v]ios« emigrations effected the most 
singular and rapid revolutions on the European conti- 
nent, that history records. 

Q. ^Vas not the kingdom of the Swedes originally 
separated from that of tlie Goths ? 

A. Yes ; but in 1 132, both nations with their several 
dependencies, were united under Suercher, king of the 



132 MODERN HISTORY. 

Ostrogoths, who was proclaimed king of the Swedes and 
Goths. 

Q. Were there any acquisitions made to this king- 
dom ? 

A. Yes; Magnus Smeck added Schonen, and the 
adjacent territories ; but, at length, by his mal-admi- 
nistration, his family were deprived of Ihe throne ; for 
after Albert, duke of Mecklenburgh, his sister's son, 
had been elected king, INIargaret, who was heiress to 
the crown of Denmark and Norway, compelled him 
to give up the kingdom to her ; and by the union of 
Calmer,* in 1397, the same princess united the three 
northern kingdoms under one head. 

Q. Did not this union excite the indignation of the 
Swedes ? 

A. Yes ; and after several unsuccessful attempts, they 
at length by the assistance of Gustavus Vasa, a Swe- 
dish nobleman, shook ofli* the Danish yoke. 

Q. What was it that particularly excited the Swedes 
to engage in this revolt ? 

A. A perfidious massacre, perpetrated at Stock- 
holm, in the year 1520, by Christian II. 

Q. Who was elected king ? 

A. The brave Gustavus Vasa, who not only became 
the founder of a line of monarchs of his own family, 
but advanced the royal authority to a very great height. 
The a'own was rendered hereditary to the issue of the 
i-eigning prince, by the free consent of the states, and 
it has accordingly been enjoyed by his descendants 
ever since. In the early part of his reign, he embraced 
the doctrines of Luther ; and died in 1560. 

Q. What was the situation of the kingdom after his 
death ? 

• See Denmark in 1597. 



SWEDEN. 133 

A. The division of it among his children ; the mal- 
administration of his son John, with the propensity of 
Erick, John's brother, and of Sigismund king of Poland, 
the son of John, to popery, threw the kingdom into dis- 
tractions, which v/ere not composed until Charles IX. 
and his son Gustavus Adolphus effected it. 

Q. When did Gustavus Adolplius come to the 
throne ? 

A. In 1621 ; after which the importance of Sweden 
rose to its greatest height; his armies supported the 
protestant interest in Europe, while his domestic poli- 
cy established good order in his kingdom. He reduc- 
ed the greatest part of Livonia, and penetrated so far 
into Germany as to become formidable to the emperor ; 
but in 1 632, he lost his life at the battle of Lulzen. 

Q. Who succeeded him? 

A. His daughter Christina. She took from Norwr^y 
and Denmark, the territories of Jemptland and Harjeda- 
lan ; with the islands of Gothland and Oeland ; and, in 
1648, added Upper Pomerania, Bremen, Verden and 
Wismar to the Swedish dominions. In 1654, she re- 
signed the crown, and was very instrumental in advanc- 
ing to the throne her cousin Charles Gustavus, who, 
in 1658, added Schonen, Halland, and other places to 
the Swedish dominions. His son Charles XI. resum- 
ed all the alienated crown-lands, and rendered himself 
an absolute monarch. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1697, and was succeeded by his son Charles 
XII. who being under fifteen years of age, a regency was 
appointed ; but the uncommon talents of this young 
prince soon procured for him the government, and 
through his mediation the peace of Ryswick was con- 
cluded before he had arrived at his seventeenth year. 
In 1700, the Poles, Danes, and Russians, taking advan- 

M 



134 MODERN HISTORY. 

tage of the kinj^'s youth, attempted recovering the do- 
minions of which their ancestors had been deprived. 
But the EngHsh and Dutch, sent a fleet into the Baltic 
to his assistance, and compelled the Danes to conclude 
a peace with him. 

Q. In what m:inner did he conduct himself after- 
wards ? 

A. He marched against the Russians and Poles, 
whom, at the'beginning of the war, he defeated in al- 
most every engagement, with numbers very inferior to 
those of his enemies ; and, in 1708, the glory of Swe- 
den rost: to an unparalleled height. This young mo- 
narch then held the balance of Europe, and might have 
dictated to all its powers; but the superior address of 
the duke of Marlborough, caused the forces of Sweden 
to be directed against the Russians. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The Czar, Peter the Great, improving by his for- 
mer miscarriages, at length formed his troops to con- 
quest : C'harlcs was defeated at Pultowa, in June, 1709, 
and his whole army cut olT, or made prisoners, except 
three or four hundred horse, with whom he escaped to 
Bender in Turkey. Here he gave signal proofs of a des- 
perate intrepidity, as incapable of fear, as it was void of 
discretion ; and with a handful of men, performed pro- 
digies of personal valour against the whole force of the 
Turks : but was finaJly m^dc a prisoner. 

Q. Did not the enemies of Sw^cden avail themselves of 
this reverse of fortune in Charles ? 

A. Yes ; the accessions of temtory which had been 
made by the princes of the House of Vasa, were, dur- 
ing his imprisonment, severed from that kingdom. A 
p€:\cc being ratified, in 171 4, Charles regained his liber- 
ty ; but his passion for war hurrying him into fresh broils, 



SWEDEN. 135 

he met his death by a cannon-ball at the sie^c of Frede- 
1 icshall, when he had invaded Norway, in 1718. 
Q. Who succeeded m the throne ? 
A. His sister Lhica Eleanor, by the fiec election of 
the stAtcs ; but s!je first gave r.p al! pretensions to arbi- 
trary power; and, in 1720, by the consent of the diet, 
transferred the government to her husband Frederick, 
hereditary prince of Ilesse Cassel ; but Frederick having 
no issue, the states, in 1743, nominated Adolphus Fre- 
derick, biihop of Fubec, his successor, who on the death 
of f>cderick, in 1751, assumed the reins of government. 
Q. Was there not a new form of government estab- 
lished at this time ? 

A. Yes; it consisted of fifty-one articles, rll tending to 
a'jridge the powers of the crown, and to render the Swe- 
disli sovereign the most limited monarch in Europe. 
Q. Did the king passively submit to these restrictions ? 
A. No; he determined to wrest from the senate their 
assumed power, and to recover thai participation of au- 
thority, which the constitution had as!;i;.jned to the 
crown ; an.l witli this view proceeded to a measure which 
was bold and decisive. 
Q. What was that ? 

A. He signed a declaration, in 1768, by which he for- 
mally abdicated tlie crown of ';weden, and, by giving 
l)jb!ic notice of this: step, at once suspended all the func- 
tions of government. 'I'he senate were therefore com- 
piled to consent to an aisem'jly of the diet, and the 
lying's concurrence was requested to confirm the procla- 
mation for that ptu'pose, which being given, he resum- 
ed the reins of government. At the meeting of the diet, 
■which followed soon after, the king's views were in some 
measure coincided with, but he did not ciTcct cvcrv 
thing which he aimed at. 
Q. When did he die ? 



136 I^IODERN HISTORY. 

A. In 1771, and was succeeded by Gustaviis his eld- 
est son, who, from the prepossessions of the people being 
strongly in his favour, effected a revolution without 
bloodshed, by which he deprived the nation of its liber- 
lies and rendered himself an absolute monarch. In 1 792, 
the king being at a masked ball, an assassin discharged 
a pistol behind him ; in consequence of which, he lan- 
j^uished a few days and expired. The day after the 
king received the wound, he sanctioned an edict, by 
which his brother, the duke of Sudermania, was appoint- 
ed regent of the kingdom, and guardian of his only son, 
then a minor, lacing fourteen years of age. This prince, 
upon the death of his father, succeeded to the crown, 
and is ROW Custavus IV. 



DENMARK. 

Q. WHAT are thd first accounts of Denmark ? 

A. The int'jrnal state of Denmark, during the earlier 
periods of its history, furnishes nothing interesting. In 
the eighth century, the Danes became formidable to 
their neighbours by their piratical depredations on the 
coasts of Llngland, Flanders, Normandy, and Germany ; 
which desultory warfare was maintained for more than 
two centuries, until their rude and savage manners being 
somewhat meliorated, they became cultivators of their 
native soil. 

Q. Were there not other causes which concurred to 
put an end to these outrages ? 

A. Yes ; that redundant population, which had been 
the means of pouring forth such swarms of plunder^rs^ 



DENMARK. 137 

no longer continued ; many had fallen by the s\vord in 
these hivasions ; conquests had been made, and emi- 
grants had settkd on the acquired territories in vast 
numbers ; the introduction of Christianity in tlie tenth 
century, served also to abate their ferocity, while the in- 
creased strength of the neighbouring states, and the 
force they had acquired at sea, became too forniidablo to 
be contended with. 

Q. Who first rendered the nation conspicuous? 

A. Canute, called the Great, who died in England, in 
1036, advanced the kingdom to its highest pitch of pow- 
er ; but the sovereigns who succeeded him, w ere little 
distinguished until the close of the fourteenth century, 
when Mavgaret obtained the regal power on the death of 
Olauslll. who had united the kingdom of Norway to that 
of Denmark. In 13S8, having defeated and taken prl- 
soncr, Alficit king of Sweden, she was enabled to urge 
her pretensions to that crown, and obtained possession 
by the consent of the states, through the reprcseiUi.tiun 
of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar, hi 13'J7, at 
which time a confederated constitution was formed of the 
•greatest consequence to the northern states, and called 
the tin ion of Calmar. 

Q. How long did tlic^e kingdoms remaui in this situa- 
tion ? 

A. This wise and heroic princess, to whom liistori- 
ans have given the distinguished appellation of the Semi- 
ramis of the north, reigned over Denmark and Nor- 
way twenty-six years, and over Sweden sixteen years. 
A century afterwards elapsed without any thing highly 
important occurring. In 1523, Frederick, duke of Hol- 
stein, was raised to the throne by the voice of the people, 
-who had deposed theu' king Christian II. for his cruelty 
aod tyranny. 

IM2 



138 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. When V.MS the crown of Sweden dismembered- 
from that of Denmark ? 

A. I)urhi2:thc rei in of Christian II. and was conferred 
Upon Gustavus \'asa. rrederick I. havbig embraced the 
doctrines of Luther, the tenets of that reformer spread 
witli g;re'at rapidity throuijh the kinv^dom. From this 
prince, all the succeeding kings of Denmark are lineally 
descended. 

Q. What event principally distinguishes the history 
of this kingdom, since the reign of Frederick I. 

A. The unprecedented revolution which took place in 
the seventeenth century in the reign of Frederick III; 
by which t!u' kingdom of Denmark v.as changed from a 
state but little different from an aristocracy, to that of an 
unlimited monarchy. A new constitution was establish- 
ed by an edict consisting of forty articles, and entitled 
the royal law of Denmark, by which the succession was 
settled on the king's eldest son, and on failure of male is- 
sue, in the female line. The kmgs of Norway and Den- 
mark are therein declared to be above all human laws, 
acknowledging in all ecclesiastical and civil affairs no 
higher power, except the Supreme Being. 

Q. What kin.;s have reigned since this revoludon ? 

A. Christian V. Frederick IV. Christian Vl.and Fre- 
derick V. The latter was succeeded, in 1766 by hisf 
son Christian VII. the reigning prince. In 1772 a revo- 
lution took place in the couit, by which the queen with 
two of the ministers and other persons were arrested. 
She afterwards r«idred to Ztll, where she died of grief, 

iu irrt. 



RUSSIA. 139 



RUSSIA. 

Q. GIVE me an account of the origin of the Russian*? 

A. Their origin is traced by Le Clue, to a colony of 
Huns, who settled on the Borysthents, where they built 
the town of Kioff. These, hov. ever, do not appear to 
have had the ascendancy among those mixed people, 
who, toward the close of the ninth century, became 
blended under the general denomination of Russians. 

Q. When did the Christian religion begin to spread 
in Russia ? 

A. About tlie middle of the tenth century. One of 
the Czars named Wolodomir, man icd a sister of a Greek 
emperor, from which time the tenets of the Greek 
ciiurch have been the estab.ished religion of the coun- 
try, five centuries elapsed after this event, during 
which IMuscovy was scarcely heard of or known in Eu- 
rope as a considerable nation. '1 he potent n»onarchs 
of the Tartars, overri.n the Asiatic tLriitorics of that 
unM ieldly empire, and struck terror to its centre. 

Q. Who was the first prince that drove out these Tar- 
tarian invad/ers ? 

A. John Basilowitz, a prince sagacious, intrepid, and 
enterprising; but blood-thirsty and tyrannical. Having 
vanquished the Tartars, he reduced the power assumed 
by the hereditary governors of provinces, and established 
his own authority on their subjugation. In 1486, he tool^ 
the title of sovereign of all the Russias, and laid claim 
to Livonia. 

Q. Were there any other invasions of this country ? 

A. Yes J toward the close of the sixteenth century, 



140 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Swedes taking aclvantai^e of the distractions which 
then previiiled in tlvj Russian enipiiv, oljtained posses- 
sion of the most vakiable parts of Livoiiia and tstho- 
liia. 

Q. Did hostihties continue for any length of time be- 
tween tlie two nations ? 

A. Yes ; with one sliort interval excepted, until )616, 
when a peace was concluded. In 1613, the ancient line 
of Czars was restored in the person of Michael Tiieodo- 
rowitz, the sovereign power having been held by usurp- 
ers for eighteen years. 

Q. How long did Michael reign ? 

A. Thirty-three years, and was succeeded l)y his son 
Alexes, to whom he transmitted the empire greatly 
strengthened and improved. Manufactures, arts and 
discipline were introduced in this active reign ; and al- 
though an unsuccessful war "was waged with Ciustavus 
Adolphus king of Sweden, yet the boundaries of the em- 
pire were extended. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Theodore, m 1667, who after a servicea- 
ble reign of seven years, on his death-bed nominated his 
half-brother Peter, to the exclusion of his eldest brother 
Ivan or John, whose imbecile mind disqualified him for 
the arduous task of government. 

Q. Did Peter obtain peaceable possession of the 
throne ? 

A. No ; their sister Sophia, a restless and ambitious 
woman, excited civil commotions, which only subsided 
on the death of John, in 1696 ; when Peter became sole 
sovereign of all the Russias, and soon distinguished 
himself as the father, and though not the actual foundes^ 
yet the great former of the Russian empire* 
• Q. What conquests did he make ? 



RUSSIA. 141 

A. He recovered from Sweden the provinces which 
had been v, rested from his ancestors. Kis zeal to hu- 
manize and improve his subjects, led him to visit vari- 
ous parts of Europe, and in England he obtained a tho- 
rough knowledge of the whole art of ship-buiiding : as a 
general, he grew gre^.t by his defeats ; and at length 
completely triumphed over his formidable rival Charles 
XII. when 8,000 Swedes were slain, and 16,000 made 
prisoners. 

Q. Was he not aided in his counsels by a distinguish- 
ed female ? 

A. Yes ; by his favourite Catharina, a nativeof Lithua- 
nia, of very low birth, which, however, did not prevent 
Peter from expressing his gratitude in the strongest 
manner, by taking her to wife, and causing the ceremo- 
ny of her coronation to be performed with the utmost 
splendour and magnificence. On the death of his son 
Alexes, who died when under sentence of death for 
high treason against his father, he procured a recogni- 
tion of his wife Catharina, as his successor, from the 
several states of the empire. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1725. He was justly and universally distin- 
guished by the appcllaiion of the Great; being one 
of the most formidable sovereigns of Europe. In his 
reign, and merely by his strenuous exertions, a Rus- 
sian fleet first rode on the Baltic. His unbounded 
power was employed in dispelling the torpid inactivity 
of his subjects, and rousing them to commercial pur- 
suits ; to facilitate which, the imperial city of Peters- 
burgh was built. 

Q. How long did Catharine hold the sovereignty ? 

A. Two years ; after which she was succeeded by 
Peter II. grandson of Peter the Creat, a minor of 1^ 



142 MODERN HISTORY. 

years of age ; but the young Czar dying of the small 
pox ill If 30, he v/ds succeeded by Ann, dutchess of 
Courland, and niecs to Peter the Great. 

Q. What \Tas the conduct of this empress ? 

A. She gave a decisive turn to the contests v/hich 
then existed in Europe ; she assisted the emperor 
Charles VI ; frustrated the schemes of the French 
ministry, for placing Stanislaus on the throne of Poland ; 
and procured the crown for his competitor Augustus, 
at the same time that she triumphed over the Turks 
and Tartars, the inveterate enemies of the Russians. 

Q. By whom Vv'as she succeeded ? 

A. By John III. an infant of two years of age ; but 
he was deposed, by the general concurrence of all 
ranks in the empire ; and the princess Elizabeth Pe- 
trowna, daughter to Peter the Great, by the empress 
Catharina, was raised to the imperial dignity, in 1741. 
In the war which broke out on the continent in 1756, 
she took a decided part in fovour of the house of Austria, 
and was on the point of crushing the Prussian monarch 
and possessing herself of his most valuable territories ; 
but she was snatched suddenly away by death, in 1762. 

Q. By whom was she succeeded ? 

A. By her nephew Charles Peter Ulric, under the 
title of Peter HI. The friendship which this princs 
bore to the king of Prussia saved him from his im- 
pending f.ite, and converted a formidable enemy into 
a beneficial auxiiiary. 

Q. Did Peter III. reign long ? 

A. No ; an intemperate zeal which led him to at- 
tempt cutting off the venerable beards of his clergy, 
and to abolish some established and favourite mili- 
tary fashions, joined to an imprudent attachment to 
the countess "^'orontzoff, and a strong antipathy to his 
wife and son, terminated his reign in a few months. 



RUSSIA. 143 

The general odium ^vhich he had dravrn upon himself, 
united all orders of his subjects against him ; he "was 
seized and deposed, and his wife raised to the imperial 
dignity, by the title of Catharine II. in 1762. 

Q. What followed ? " 

A. During her reign, a war broke out between Rus- 
sia and the Porte, and in 1774 a peace was signed, 
which produced the highest advantages to Russia. The 
occurrences in Europe, since that peace, hare uniform- 
ly contributed to raise the consequence and power of 
this kingdom. 

Q. Did she encourage men of science ? 

A. Yes ; by her munificence, eminent professors 
of the liberal arts were drawn te her court. A new 
code of laws was formed for the Russian empire under 
her auspices, by which the tediousness and indecision 
of Russian jurisprudence was removed, and the country 
relieved from the disgrace and oppression consequent 
on legal chicane. Soon after the peace in 1774, she 
also abolished various taxes, some of which had been 
imposed during the war, and others that had been of 
longer standing. 

Q. Did she encourage immigration ? 

A. Yes ; inviting prospects were held out to fo- 
reigners, and such a general system of toleration adopt- 
ed, as proved a fruitful source of population to the 
Russian empire. It is cor.puted that twelve foreign 
colonies have settled on the VVolgd : the families of 
v/hich they are composed, have been estimated at more 
than 6,000, professing different religions, and under 
the influence of various customs and mannere. 

Q. But were not the great qualities of this princess 
sullied by her conduct toward Poland ? 

A. Yes ; she seized an extensive territory which un- 
questionably made a part of that kingdom, and caused a 



144 MODERN HISTORY. 

powerful army to proceed thither, in the most hostile 
manner, for the express purpose of ovcrt\irning a new 
constitution formed upon enlarged and equitable prin- 
ciples- And she is supposed to have been acces- 
sary to the murder of her deposed husband, which took 
place soon after her accession to the throne. She died 
in 1796, and was succeeded by her son Paul I. who, in 
1801, was assassinated, and succeeded by his son Alex- 
ander, the present reigning prince. 



LIVONIA AND ESTHONIA. 

Q. WHAT are the first accounts we have of Livonia 
and Esthonia, which are now parts of Russia ? 

A. The history of Livonia and Esthonia commences 
"with the introduction of Christianity in the twelfth cen- 
tury, before which time paganism prevailed. Some 
merchants of Bremen being driven by stress of wea- 
ther on the coast of Livonia, obtained leave of the 
natives to erect a v/are-house for tlie reception of their 
goods on the banks of the Duna, and in 1186 an Augus- 
tine monk, named Meinhard, settled in the country, and 
brought over many of the natives to the profession of 
the Christian faith. A few years after, Canute V. king 
of Denmark, subdued the province of Esthonia. Ke in- 
troduced Christianity, erected churches in the country, 
and sent priests to officiate in them. 

Q. Hov/ did these countries become a part of Rus;iia ? 

A. In 1721, Sweden ceded them forever to Russia; 
at which time his czarish majesty engaged to preserve 
and maintain the inhabitant??, in the enjoyment of all the 
rights and privileges they had possessed, while under. 



POLAND. 145 

the dominion of Sweden, and to permit the Lutheran 
religion, with the churches and schools, and all the 
endowments, to continue on the same footing as under 
the Swedish government. 



POLAND. 

Q. What are the first accounts we have of Poland ? 

A. This country either afforded no materials for the 
historian, or it produced no writer to record its history, 
for a considerable time after the other nations of Europe 
emerged from obscurity. Nothing worthy of notice 
is preserved, until Jagellon, grand duke of Lithuania, 
obtained the sovereignty of Poland, in 1385. 

Q. What foUov/ed his being elected king ? 

A. He renounced the doctrines of paganism, to which 
he had before adhered, and embraced Christianity ; 
from which time it spread rapidly among the Poles. 
He united the whole of his hereditary dominions to 
those of Poland : in return for which the Poles ren- 
dered the crown hereditary in his family ; but his male 
liue terminated in the person of Sigismund Augustus ii% 
1572. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By Henry duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. 
of France ; but upon the death of his brother, Henry 
succeeded to the crown of France and abandoned that 
of Poland. From this reign commenced the corre- 
spondence between the French and Poles, which sub- 
sisted, very little indeed to the advantage of the Poles, 
for more than a century : but the increasing power of 

N 



146 MODERN HISTORY. 

its northern neighbours has since entirely counteracted 
the politics of the court of Versailles. 

Q. Who succeeded to the throne after the resig- 
nation of Henry ? 

A. Stephen Batori, a prince of Transylvania, was 
chosen, on account of the high reno\vn which he had 
acquired. He recovered from the Muscovites, all that 
tliey had formerly taken from the Poles ; after which he 
settled the Ukraine, which in the Polish language, 
signifies the frontier, and which was at that time a wild 
and unprofitable desert. 

Q. When did Stephen Batori die ? 

A. In 1586, and was succeeded by Sigismund HI. 
a prince of Sweden, who waged a long and unsuccess- 
ful war with his native country. In his wars with the 
Turks he was more fortunate. After a reign of forty 
years, lie was succeeded by his eldest son Uladislaus 
VII. w!.o was successful against the Turks, the Russi- 
ans, and the Swedes. He died in 1 648, and was succeeded 
l^y his brother Jolui Casiaicr. The elector of Branden- 
burgh, in this reign, obtcdned from th.e Poles a renuncia- 
tion of their sovereignty over Ducal Prussia, which he 
held as a vassal of the crov.n of Poland. 

Q. What was the conduct of Casimer ? 

A. He attempted gaining an uncontrolable and abso- 
lute sovereignty in Poland ; by wliich he excited a civil 
v/ar, and was defeated by prince Lubomirski. After 
draining the country of its current specie, which he re- 
mitted to Frraice, he precipitately left the kingdom, 
and follov. ed his wealth. Pie then made a formal re- 
nunciation of the crov/n, and died two years after. 

Q. Who succeeded him? 

A. IMichael Wiesnowiski, during whose reign the 
Turks invaded Poland, and took the capital of Podolia, 
but jt was restored in 1690. He died in three years 



POLAND. •' 147 

after his elevation, and was succeeded by John Sobieski, 
who cavried on a war against the Turks. 

Q. What was his success ? 

A. In 1675, with r:0 more than 5,000 men, he defeated 
60,000 Turks and Tartars ; after which receiving a 
reinforcement of 10,000 troops, he drove 100,000 of the 
enemy out of Fodolia, and was crowned at Cracow, in 
February 1676. The Turks, by these defeats, were 
brought to acquiesce in terms of peace, which v.ere ob- 
served during seven years: but in 1683, the Ottomans 
invaded Hungary, and U\id siege to Vienna. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The neighbouring princes, roused to action by the 
impending danger, put their forces under the command 
of Sobieski, whose army amounted to 40,000. With 
these he attacked and defeated the Ottomans, whose 
numbers were little short of 200,000. Tins decisive 
stroke restored peace. Sobieski died, in 1696, and left 
a son, prince James Sobieski ; but the Poles did not no- 
minate him f.r their kinp;. 

Q. What was tl.c consequence ? 

A. An interregnum followed, after which Frederick 
Augustus, elector of Saxony, was cliosen; but in 170j, 
the Poles being encouraged by Charles XII. of Sweden, 
declared the crown vacant, and chose Stanislaus 
Leesensk, for thtir king ; to establish whom on the 
throne, Charles of Sweden entered Saxony with a 
powerful army, and compelled Augustus to save his 
electorate, by abDndoning his pretensions to the crown 
of Poland. The reverse of fortune, Iiov.ever, which 
Charles experienced, in 1708, gave Augustus the 
ascendency; and his competitor found it necessary, in 
his turn, to quit tlie kingdon) . 

Q. Did Augustus obtain peaceable possession of the' 
crown ? 



148 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. No ; disputes and ill will prevailed between him 
and the nobility from that time until his death, which 
liappened, in 1732. Whether the house of Austria, or 
that of Bourbon sjiould fix the succession to the throne 
of Poland, then plunged Europe into a war. The house 
of Austria supported the pretensions of Augustus, the 
son of the deceased king : in which nomination the court 
of Petersburgh also concurred. Bourbon aimed at 
restoring the abdicated Stanislaus, whose d^^ughter, 
the princess IMary, "".vas married to Louis XV. But 
notwithstanding this alliance, his interest was not vigor- 
ously supported by the court of Versailles ; and he was 
finally driven out t)f Poland, and Frederick Augustus, 
elector of Saxony, chosen king. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. In 1745, the king of Pinissia attacked him in his 
hereditary dominions, nvade himself master of Dresden, 
and forced the elector to accept such terms of peace as 
were proffered. 

Q. Did they afterwards coritinue upon terms of ami- 
ty > 

A. No : in 1756, Augustus having secretly become 
a party in a confederacy formed by the empress queen, 
and the king of France, to strip the king of Prussia of 
the province of Silesia ; Augustus suddenly fell a victim 
to the resentment of that monarch, who took possessivon 
of Dresden his capital, and compelled his whole army, 
consisting of 13,000 men, to surrender prisoners of 
war. He died in 1763, and was succeeded by count 
Poniatowski, who took the name of Stanislaus Au- 
gustus. 

Q. Wliat followed? 

A. Soon after his elevation, the Russian troops enter- 
ed his kingdom, on the plea of procuring a toleration 
and other privileges for the Dissidents, who were of the 



POLAND. 149 

Greek church, and for the Lutheran and other reformed 
Christians. The biuei' enmity which subsisted between 
tlie Roman Catholics and the Dissidents, kindled the 
flame of a fierce, bloody and desolating civil v/ar, which 
raged three years ; and in tlie midst of which the mi- 
serable Poles were visited with a pestilence, whicli 
swept off more than 200,000, of their number. 

Q. Did tlie neic^hbouring powers take advantage of 
their misfortunes ? 

A. Yes ; they seized upon large districts of this un- 
hq)py kingdom, amounting in extent and consequence 
to one-third of the whole, and annexed tbcm to tl cir 
own dominions. 

Q. Describe the countiics which were thus forcibly 
wrested ? 

A. The claims of Austria comprehended the soutli- 
ern p?.rt of little Poland, and tlie wiioie of Red Russia, 
with Procuti-i. The district seized upon by tic cm- 
press of Russia, v/as the whole cf Folish i.ivoria, and 
that part of Lithuania which borders en the Russian em- 
pire. The king of Prussia (whose country had formerly 
been held in vassalage to Poland, and whose title of king 
had been only recently acknowledged by the 1 cies) 
took possession of all the western parts of l^omerania, 
together with the whole of Pciish Prussia, except the 
cities of Dantzic and -Thome. As these countries forin 
the southern shores of the Baltic and give command of 
the Vistula, they are rendered highly in^iportant. Thp 
political views of the monarch of Prussia hereby be- 
came much enlarged, being dhected to commercial 
and maritime objects. Tiie king of Poland, unable to 
make any efiicctual opposition to this usurpation, gave 
his sanction to the partition m 1772. 

Q. Did not the exertions of the king, contribute very 

N 2 



150 MODERN HISTORY. 

esr^entially to render effectual a new constitution whicti 
"vvus settled for Poland ? 

A. Yes ; but this noble plan of a free and equitable 
' government, was rendered ineffectual by the lawless 
and tyrannic interference of the empress of Russia, wha i 
sent a large army into the country for the express pu^-^ 
pnse of compelling an independent people to reject a 
form of government, to which, in 179 1, they had acced- 
ed with great unanimity, and to restore the ancient estab- 
lishment with all its exploded defects and incongruities. 
Q. What followed ? 

A. The interference of Catharine was too powerful 
to be resisted ; the new constitution was therefore over- 
thrown in 1793, and the empress, who had formed a 
plan in conjunction with the king of Prussia for a second 
partition of this country, now effected it. This measure 
gave great umbrage to many of the Poles, who in 1794, 
took up arms u-ider the brave Kcsciusco. But although 
he was successful at first against the king of Prussia, he 
was eventually defeated and taken prisoner by the Rus- 
sians, who on the fourth and fifth of November following, 
took Warsaw by storm., amidst the most unrelenting and 
barbarous slaughter. The king formally resigned his 
crown at Grodno, in 1795, and was a kind of state 
prisoner until his death, wliich took place on the 1 Uh of 
February 1798, at Saint Petersburgh, in the 66th year 
of his age. Poland has since remained in the pos- 
session of a foreign force, and its provinces, as has beeti 
stated, are divided among the partitioning powers. 



GERMANY. 

Q. What was the situation of the Gennans in the first 
peri;:d of their history ? 

A. In the early ages of the world, they were divided 



GERMANY. 154. 

into many petty nations and principalities, some govern- 
ed by kings whose power w^as limited, others by such as 
were absolute ; some of their princes w^ere elective, 
said others hereditary ; some aristocratical and demo- 
cratical governments were also found among them. 
Many of these states and kingdoms frequently united 
imder one head or general, both in their offensive and 
defensive wars. 

Q. What was their character at this time ? 

A. They expressed an extraordinary regard for mora- 
lity, and were very strict in their mode of v/orship, choos- 
ing their priests out of the nobility, who were not en- 
tirely ignorant of moral philosophy and physics, and 
were usually called to councils of state. Vv^omen were 
also admitted to the pri jstly office, and both were treat- 
ed with the most profound respect by the kdty. 

Q. Were they conc[uered by the Romans ? 

A. Yes ; but the Romans met witii such resistance 
that they were contented with making the Rhine and 
the Danube the boundaries of their conquests ; and ac- 
cordingly built fortresses and stationed garrisons on 
the banks of both those rivers, to prevent the incui*- 
^ions of the Germans. 

Q. Did they not break through these boundaries ? 

A. Yes ; about a century after Constantine the v*reat, 
the Franks, Burgundians, and other German nations, 
passed the Rhine, and dispossessed the Romans of all 
Gaul, Rhactia, andNoricum, which they shared among 
them ; but the Franks prevailing over the rest, at length 
established their empire over all modern Germany, 
France, and Italy, under the conduct of Charlemagne, 
or Charles the Great, in the latter end of the eighth cen- 
tury. 

Q. What was the situation of the conquered Germaa 
nations ? 



15^ MODERN HISTORY* 

A. They had at first hereditary dukes of their own, 
and were governed by their own laws ; but Charles put 
an end to the former, and governed the countries by 
counts and royal missionaries. The ancient diets were, 
however, still reitained. In 800, Charles revived the 
dignity of Roman emperor, and conferred it upon 
himself and family ; but his successor Louis, divided 
the empire among his sons, which occasioned much 
disturbance. An accommodation, however, took place 
in 843; by which Louis the German, obtained all 
Germany as far as the lihine, with the three towns of 
Spires, Worms, and Mentz : and thus Germany bti- 
came an independent kingdom. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Louis the younger, who shared his pater- 
nal kingdom with lis brothers, Carlmun and Charles. 
13at Charles surviving his brothers inherited their 
kingdoms, and obtained the imperial dignity, together 
with all Italy pjid France. 

Q. What was his character ? 

A. He governed in so weak a manner, that, in 887, he 
was deposed by the German states, who constituted Ar- 
nulph, Carlman's natural son, Mng of Germany ? 

Q. What conquests did he make ? 

A. He defeated the Normans, who had committed 
great devastations in Germany ; and by the assistance of 
the Huns, subdued the Bohemians ; but afterwards, by 
the death of his son Louis, his family became extinct. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The German states, in 9 1 1, rtiised a duke of Fran- 
conia, named Conrad, to the throne. He was succeed- 
ed by Henry duke of Saxony. 

Q. When did the male race of the Saxon kings and 
emperors end? 

A. In Henry II. A. D. 1024. The states aftervfar^s 



GERMANY. 153 

elected Conrad II. who, by means of bis son, annexed 

I the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire, rendered Po- 

,1 Jand subject to his doniinion, and in a treaty with Den- 

|i mark, appointed tlie river Eider, as tlie boundary of the 

*' German empire. 

Q. What viras the conduct of his successor Hen- 
ry III ? 

A. He deposed three popes who had set up against 
each other, and supported a fourth against them. But 
Henry IV. was put under the bann by the pope, in 
consequence of which he was deposed by the states. 
Q Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Henry V. but in 1 122 he was obliged to 
renounce all pretensions to the investiture of bishopricks, 
which had been claimed by his ancestors ; and in him, 
became extinct the male line of the Franconian em- 
perors. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The pope caused I.otharius, duke of Saxony, to 
be elected ; but he was not acknowledged by all Germa- 
ny for their sovereign, till after a ten years war. In 
1152 Frederick I. became emperor, and effectually ex- 
ercised his sovereignty over the see of Rome by virtue 
of his coronation at Aries, reserving also his dominion 
over that kingdom, and obliging Poland to pay him tri- 
bute, and to take an oath of allegiance. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A.Henry YI. Philip III. and Otho; the latter of 
whom, being deposed by the pope, was succeeded by 
Frederick II. whom historians extol for his learning, 
wisdom, and resolution. He was five times excom- 
municated by three popes ; but prevailed so far against 
Gregory IX. as to depose him from the papal chair. 

Q. What was the subsequent state of the empire ? 

A. About the middle of the thirteenth century, it 
.was rent asunder by factions, each of w-hich supported 



154 MODERN HISTORYV 

a particular candidate for the imperiu,! dignity : these. 
were William earl of Holland, Henry of Thuringia, 
Richard earl of Cornwal, brother to Henry HI. of Eng- 
land, and Alphonzo king of Castile. At this time the 
great officers of the household laid claim to a right of 
electing the emi>eror, to the exclusion of the princes 
and great towns, or without consulting any other mem- 
bers of the empire, the distracted state of which, serv- 
ed to confirm this claim. Gregory X. who then filled 
the pontifical chair at Rome, cither considering such 
claim as valid, or desirous of rendering it so, gave di- 
rection to those great cfiicers, exhorting them to choose 
an emperor, and by that means to terminate the trou- 
bles in Germany ; since which time they have been con- 
sidered as the sole electors. 

Q. When did Germany recover from its distracted 
state ? 

A. In 1273 ; at which time count Rodolphus of Haps- 
burg, from whom sprung the house of Austria, was ad- 
vanced to the imperial dignity. Charles IV. of the 
Austrian family, lived to see his son Wenzel elected 
king of the Romans. 

Q. Who succe 'sided Charles ? 

A. His son Wenzel or Wenceslaus ; biit being disso- 
lute and cruel, he was deposed after a reign of 22 years. 
Three successive princes followed, whose reigns v/erc 
short; and at length, in 14.il, Sigismund w^as unani- 
mously chosen emperor, who. in 14 14, caused a general 
council to be convoked at Constance, in v/hich three 
popes were deposed, and a new one set up. 

A. Did not some of the reforrrxcrs suffer death at 
this council? 

A. Yes; John Huss, and Jerom of Prague, v/erc 
condemned and burnt, although the emperor had grant- 
ed them a passport, and was engaged by the ties of 



GERMANY. 155 

honour and conscience for their safe return to their 
country ; which so exasperated the Hussites of Bohe- 
mia, that they raised a formidable army, and under the 
conduct of Zisca their general, defeated his forces in 
fourteen battles. 

Q. WIio succeeded Sigismund ? 

A. Albert, and then Frederick duke of Austria. His 
son Maximilian was chosen king of the Romans during 
the life of his father, and afterwafds obtained from the 
pope the imperial crown. During his reign the empire 
was divided into ten circles. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. In 1519, Charles V. surnanied the Great, son of 
Philip king of Spain, and grand-son to Maximilian, 
was elected emperor. Pie procured Luther's doctrine 
to be condemned, and in his reign the disciples of that 
great reformer obtained the name of Protestants, from 
their protesting against a degree of tl.e imperial diet 
in favour of the Catholics. 

Q. What were this emperor's conquests 1 

A. He is said to have been ^ ictorious in seventy bat- 
tles : he had the pope and French king- prisoners at the 
same tim.e, and carried iiis armies into Africa, where 
be conquered the kingdom of Tunis. He compelled 
the Turks to r^iisc the siege of Vienna, u;ade war on the 
Protestant princes, and took the elector of Saxony and 
the prince of Hesse prisoners ; but after a reign of 
thirty-eight years, he resigned the empire to his brother 
Ferdinand I. and the kingdom of Spain to ids son Phi- 
lip n. and retired to the convent of St. Justus in Estra- 
madura in 1556. 

Q. Who succeeded Ferdinand 1. 1 

A. His son Maximilian II. in 1564, and diecl In 
1575, when the government of the empire devolved 
upon his son Randolph II. who was succeeded by his 



156 MODERN HISTORY. 

brother Matliias, in whose coronr.tionoath, it was for the 
first time inserted, that the electors for the future should 
be entitled to elect the king of the Romans, even 
against the will of the emperor. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 16-9, and was succeeded by his cousin Fer- 
dinand de Gretz. In this reign of Ferdinand II. in 
1618, the thirty years war broite out, which aimed at 
destroying the Protestants. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his son Ferdinand III. in 1637, who maintain- 
ed the war for eleven years ; but having suffered many 
severe defeats, and his best generals having perished in 
the service, a regard to his own personal safety induced 
him to ask for peace, which was signed at Munster, in 
1 648, and which brought back to Germany its lost tran- 
quillity, secured the rights of conscience, and tended 
very much to reconcile the jarring interests of Europe. 

Q. When did Ferdinand III. die ? 

A. In 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold. 
I. vrhodied in 1705, and was succeeded by his son Jo- 
seph I. The next emperor was Gharlcs VI. his bro- 
ther, in 1711, and in 1713 he published the ordinance 
called the Pragmatic Sanction, to secure his hereditary 
dominions to his daughter Maria Theresa. 

Q. When did Charles VI. die ? 

A. In 1740, without a male heir, anc in 1742 Charles 
VII. of Bavaria, was chosen emperor ; but after an un- 
happy reign in which he was continually at war, he died 
in 1745, and was succeeded by I'rancii I, grand duke 
of Tuscany, v/ho had married Maria Theresa, daughter 
of Charles VI. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1765, and was succeeded by his eldest son Jo- 
seph II. When this prince attained to the imperial dig- 



GERMANY. 157 

iiity, he was distinguished by a steady and active atten- 
tion to every department of government, and introduc- 
ed a variety of salutary reforms into the state. He ren- 
dered the condition of the lower orders of men in his 
hereditary dominions, less wretched and servile, by alle- 
viating that cruel vassalage in which they \^ere held 
by the feudal lords of the soil ; while a free and un- 
reserved toleration was granted to all sects and every 
denomination of Christians : But the expectations 
which were raised by this conduct were in some mea- 
sure frustrated by a more full developement of his cha- 
racter, in which activity without efficiency, enacting 
laws and abrogating them ; forming great designs, and 
terminating them in mean concessions, appeared con- 
i-picuous. On the death of the elector of Bavaria, in 
1777, in whom the ancient family of Gulielme or Lu- 
dovice of Bavaria terminated, the emperor laid claim to 
a considerable part of that electorate, founded on a 
vague right which had been set up, but not co>itcndcd 
for, by Sigismund, in 1425. 

Q. Did he meet with any opposition ? 

A. Yes ; the king of Prussia as elector of Brandeh- 
burg, opposed these pretensions, on the ground of pro- 
tecting the empire in its rights, privileges, and terri- 
torial possessions, against all encroachments ; but tke 
emperor not being induced by negociation to relinquish 
his designs, they led their formidable armies in per- 
son, to decide the dispute by arms. 

Q. What was the result ? 

A. The campaign closed without any general action ; 
and during the following winter, the courts of Peters- 
burg and Versailles interposing their good offices, terms 
of peace Were adjusted at Teschen in Austrian Silesia, 
by which the house of Austria acquired a territory of 

O 



153 MODERN HISTORY. 

about seventy English miles extent, and in breadth hali 
that space ; the rivers Danube, In, and Sa.ltZtL, separate 
this district froin the rest of Bavaria. Joseph II. was 
succeeded by Leopold II. in 1790, who in 1794 was 
succeeded by Francis II. 



PRUSSIA. 

Q. WHAT are the first accounts we have of Prussia ? 

A. The name of Prussians was unknown till the 
tenth century. In that age, the kings of Poland attempt- 
ed the conversion of the pagan Prussians to Christi- 
anity. Some centuries after, the Prussians ravaged 
Culm, Cujavia and Masovia, which occasioned Conrad, 
duke of Masovia, to apply to his allies for assistance. 
But their efforts proving ineffectual, he applied to the 
German knights of the Teutonic order, who, in 1230 
obtained the palatinates of Culm and Doberzen for 20 
years, and afterwards forever, with absolute authority 
over any future conquests in Piussia. 

Q. What were the conquests made by these knights ? 

A. After a contest of half a century they subdued 
the whole country. But a war broke out between them 
and the Lithuanians afterwards, which was attended 
with the most dreadful outrages. These knights made 
rcli^^ion the cloak of their ambitious vic\vs, and under 
the pretence of propagating the gospel of peace, com- 
mitted the most inhuman barbarities. But in 1410, 
their intemperate zeal received a terrible check ; for 
after a most bjoody battle they were totally defeated. 

Q. Did this country remain subject to the Teutonic 
order ? 



PRUSSIA. 159 

A. Xo ; in 1454, one half of it revoked and declared 
for Casimer III. king- of Poland, which occasioned a 
fresh effusion of blood. But a peace v>'as concluded in 
1466, by which it was agreed, that the part afterwards 
called Polish Prussia, should continue a free province 
under the king's protection ; and thut the knights and 
the grand master should possess the other part, ac- 
knowledging themselves vassals of Poland. 
Q. Did they quietly submit to this yoke ? 
A. No ; they soon endeavoured, but in vain, to throw 
it off. After a six years contest, which terminated in 
1525, it was agreed, by a pe\ce concluded at Cracow, 
that Margrave Albeit, graiid master of the Teutonic 
order, should be acknowledged duke of the cr.st part of 
Prussia, which he was to hold as a fief of Poland, and 
which was to descend to his male heirs. Thus ended 
the sovereignty of the Teutonic order in Prussia, after 
it had subsisted 300 years. 

Q. What was the religion of the new duke ? 
A. lie had embri^ced Luthcranism, and favouri^l 
the introduction of the reformed religion into iiis dc- 
minions. He founded the university of Koningsberi.;. 
The duchy of Prussia v.as afterwards added to the 
electoral house of Brandenburg, wiih wiiich it had been 
Jong closely connected. 

Q. What was the subsequent state of this country ? 
A. The reign of the elector (ieorge ^ViIIiam, was 
unhappily distinguished by the calamity of a thirty 
years \7ar, in which Prussia sufrcred much from the 
ravages of the Swedes ; but his son I'rederick William, 
was freed fioni vass.\Ia:^e by Casiaic:' king of Poland ; 
and with his descendants declared independent and so- 
vereign lords of tliis part of Prussia. lie also obtained 
a grant of the lordships of Laucnburg and Britow, to be 



160 MODERN «ISTOUY. 

held in the same manner as they Had formerly been by 
the duke of Pomerania ; and havinc^ further extended the 
•power of his electoral house, he obtained the title of the 
Orcat ? 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Frederick the son of Frederick William the Great, 
raised the duchy of Prussia to a kingdom, and on the 
I8lh of January 1701, in a solemn assembly of 
tne states of the empire, he placed the cro\Mi on his 
ovn head and ou that gf his consort ; soon after which, 
he was acknowledged king of Prus!?ia, by all the other 
Christian powers, except Poland. His son Frederick 
U. who ascended the throne in 1713, greatly increased 
the ]X)puIation of his country, by the favourable recep- 
tion he gave to the distressed and persecuted Saltz- 
l>urgcrs, as liis grandf:ahcr had done by making it an 
•a'^ylum to the Hugonots, when driven out of France 
by the revocation of the edict of Nantz, in 1 68 1. 

O. Who succeeded liim ? 

A. Frederick 111. in 1740. This monajxh rendered 
liis kingdom foi-midablc by his valour and uncommon 
])rudence ; and promoted the happiness of Ids subjects, 
]>y an amendment, and simpliiication of the laws, the 
increase of commerce, and many wise regulations. 
But his depredations on Poland, and his arbitrary and 
unjust violation of the guaranteed privileges of Dantzic, 
as Vvcll as the oppressions •which the city of Thum 
endured, will transmit his name to posterity, sullied 
and degraded. 

Q. What foUov.-cd ? 

A. On the death of the emperor Charles VI. he led a 
large anny into Silesia, and carried on a war for some 
time against Maria Theresa, daughter of the late empe- 
ror, who was married to the grand duke of Tuscany ; 
but in 1742, a treaty betAvcen the queen of Ilungarx 



PRUSSIA. 



161 



aiid the king of Prussia was signed at Bresbce, by 
which she ceded to b.im Upper and Lovvcr Silcsiii, with 
the county of Ghtz in i3ohemia. 

Q. What was the state of his military forces ? 

A. In 1756, he had 150,000 of the best troops in 
Europe ; at which time a league was formed against 
him by the empress queen, and court of ^'ersaiiles : 
Augustus, king of Pohmd and elector of Saxony, had 
secretly become a party to this confederacy, the ob- 
ject of which was to subdue the Prussian dom.inions, 
and partition them among the contracting powers. 

Q. Did Frederick obtain information of thi^i cor.fedc- 

racy ? 

A. Yes ; and pioceeded witli no less spirit than 
cfTcct to avert it. He marched a powerful army into 
the electorate of Saxony, compelled the troops of tlie 
elector to lay down their arms ; became master of Dres- 
den, entered the palace, got possession of the corre- 
spondence which had been carrymg on against him, 
and published to Europe the authentic documents 
which he had thus obl;intd, and \\hich justified him 
fully in the hosliiilies he had commenced. 

Q. Did the war then terminate ? 

A. No ; it raged afterwards \\ith great fury, and the 
empress of Russia joined the confederacy against 
Eredcrick : But his unparalleled exertions, judicious 
measures, and personal bravery ; which were supported 
by the wealth and arms of Great Britain, finally bafiled 
ail the attempts of his enemies : and the general peace, 
which was ratified in 1763, termmated his labours in the 
field. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1786, at the age of 74, and was succeeded by 

his nephew Frederick IV. who in 1797 was succeeded 

by Frederick V. 

O 2 



16 2 MODERN HISTORY. 



IIUXCAUV. 

O. V.'IK) 'a cTL' the ancient inhabitants of Hungary r 

A. I'hc western inhabitants of Hungary Mere origi- 
iially called Pannonians, a'^.cl the northern Jazygians ; 
but the Romans having reduced Tannonia, kept it 
nearly 400 years, when the \'andals drove ihem out, 
and kept it 10 years; and in ZV5, when they advanced 
toward Ciaul- the (lolhs look possession of their settle- 
ment : iliese in their turn, were obliged to resiq^n their 
View possessions to tlie Hu!is, who had likewise driven 
liiem fVoni their anci^ni iiabitations. 

q. U'liat followed? 

A. In 888, the Huns, under the name of Hungarians* 
tiu de a second irruption into Pannonia, as auxiliaries 
:o Arnulph, enii>eror of the west-, and Leo, emperor of 
the east, against the Bulgarians and Sclavonians, whom 
they reduced. They had seven commanders, and both 
Cermany and Italy afterwards felt the terrible efiects 
of their ferocity ; but by degrees, their manners be- 
came more civilized, especially touard the end of the 
tenth century, when Ceysa, their prince, embraced the 
Christian religion. In 997, his son Stephen bcQame 
the first king of Hungary, to which he annexed Tran- 
sylvania, as a province : after his death he was ca- 
nonized. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. A succession of twenty kings, natives of the 
country, the last of whom was Andrew HI. who died 
in 1301. After these followed a succession of twelve 
forei'ni sovereigns, the last of whom, Louis H. fell in 
iin un.succc&tilul battle*agaiast the Turks. 



FRANCE. 163 

Q. Ta whom did the kingdom devolve after the 
death of Louis II. ? 

A. To the house of Austria ; under whom arose a 
most bloody intestine war, which lasted for a long time, 
and in which the country was equally ravaged by the 
Turks and Austrians. In 1687, it became an heredi- 
tary kingdom to the archducal house of Austria ; and 
it was agreed at the diet in 1722, that in case of failure 
of male heirs, the princesses should succeed. 

Q. Did any thing of this kind take place ? 

A. Vcs. The emperor Charles \T. dying in 1740, 
ins eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, ascended the 
throne, and was crovrncd in 174 I. She was consort to 
the emperor I'rancis Stephen, whom the states of the 
kingdom also invested with the joint sovereignty. 

Q. Who succeeded Maria Theresa ? 

A. Ilcr son Joseph II. emperor of Cermany, in 1780, 
jmd he dying in 1 /90, his next brother, Peter Leopold, 
grand duke of Tuscany, became king of Hungary ; but 
dying five months after his elevation, he Mas succeeded 
by his son Francis. 



IRAXCE. 

Q. 13Y whom was France anciently inhabited ? 

A. By the (eltx, on whom the Romans first confer- 
red the name of Ciauls. In the fifth century, the I3ur- 
gundians, Visigoths, and Bretons, settled in several 
parts of Gaul. These were followed by the Franks 
from (iermany, who, under Merovic and Childeric, 
conquered a part of Gaul, and, under Clovis, extended 
their dominion from the Rhine to the mouth of the 



164 MODERN HISTORV. 

Loire : on the death of Clovis, liis four sons divided his 
kingdom among them. 

Q. In what manner were the lands of Gaul distri- 
buted, on being conquered by the Franks ? 

A. They were distributed among their officers ; and 
these with th€ clergy, formed the first great councils 
or parliaments. In 739, Charles Martel usurped the 
sovereignly. The Saracens who had made themselves 
masters of the south of France, penetrating into the 
heart of the kin<;dom, were entirely defeated by him; 
in consequence of v/hich he considered himself as the 
deliverer of Christendom : and such was his popularitv, 
that with the consent of the people, and even of the 
pop.^, he assumed the dominion of France ; and after 
deposing the king, rendered himself an absolute prince, 
by depriving the nobility and clergy of their share in 
the government. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? * 

A. By his son Pepin, who restored the privileges 
of the clergy, on their agreeing to exclude the former 
race of kings. Pie also divided the provinces among 
his principal nobility, allowing them to exercise sove- 
reign authority in their respective governments ; till 
at length, assuming a kind of independency, they only 
acknowledged the king as their head : and this gave 
rise to the numerous principalities and their several 
parliaments, every province retaining the same form 
of government that had been exercised in the whole, 
and no laws were made or taxes raised, without the 
concurrence of the nobility and clergy. 
Q. Who succeeded Pepin ? 

A. His son Charles, known by the name of Charle- 
magne, or Charles the Great. He conquered Italy, 
Germany, and part of Spain ; and was crowned empe- 
ror of the Romans, by pope Leo III, in 800. From 



FRANCE. 



165 



Iiim descended the race of kings, caHed the Carolovi- 

nian line. 

Q. When was Germany separated from France ? 

A. About eighty years after the death of Charle- 
magne, which happened in 814. 

Q. How long did the Ca4'olovinian race of kings con- 
tinue sovereigns of France ? 

A. Until the reign of Louis V, when, in 987, Hugh 
Capet, a popular nobleman, assumed the throne, and 
began the Capetine.lhie of monarchs. 

Q. Did any remarkable event take place about this 

time ? 

A. Yes ; the crusades or expeditions to the Holy 
land, for the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens, 
being preached up, by order of the pope ; the princes 
of every kingdom in Europe engaged in these falsely- 
called Holy wars, in which Christianity M-as to be 
propagated ]jy fire and sword ; and in which several 
hundred thousand Christians perished : and although 
they at length took Antioch, Jerusalem, and several 
other places, yet they were all wrested from them in the 
course of two hundred years. Louis IX. called St. 
I^ouis, with most of the nobility, were taken prisoners 
in Egypt, on one of these expeditions, and their ran- 
soms were rcited at an immense sum. He had two sons, 
J'hilip and Robert ; from the elder, who was the third 
king of that name, and surnamed the Hardy, the king* 
of the house of Valois were descended, which line com- 
menced in the person of Philip Vl. A. D. 1388. 

Q. When was the kingdom Navarre added -to the 
crown of France ? 

A. In 1285, by the marriage of Phihp IV. with Jane» 
queen of Navarre ; and in 1344, Hubert count Dauphin 
of Vienna, transferred his doniinions to the crown of 



166 MODERN HISTORY* 

FVance, on condition that the king's eldest son should 
ever after be styled Dauphin. 

Q. Who invaded France about this time ? 

A. Edward III. king of England, Avho laid claim t® 
the crown of France, on account of his being descended 
in a direct line from Philip IV. In 1346, he obtained 
a victory at Cressy, in Picardy, and the next year took 
Calais. In 1356, the French v.ere defeated at Poiclicrs, 
by Edv/ard the Black Prince, and king John and his son 
Philip taken prisoners to England. On his return, 
notwithstanding the deplorable state of his kingdom, he 
would have been persuaded to begin a crusade ag&inst 
the Turks, but his son v*ho was left in England as a 
hostage having escaped, John, who was a scrupulous 
observer of all his engage^ments, returned to London, 
where he died. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Charles V. who raised the kingdom to a 
state of prosperity by the wisdom of his government. 
He engaged in a fresh war with England, and reco- 
vered all the lost provinces except Calais. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Charles \'I. who soon after was seized with a khid 
of phrensy, which occasioned France to be torn by 
the factions of his uncles the duke of Burgundy and 
Orleans ; the latter of whom v/as assassinated in the 
streets of Paris, by order of the former, which laid the 
foundation of a civil war : and Henry V. of England, 
availing himself of the advantage, invaded France, and 
.obtained a victory at Agincourt in 1415. 

Q. Did a reconciliation take place ? 

A. A conference was held in 1419, for that purpose, 
when the dauphin and duke of Orleans caused the 
-duke of Burgundy to be murdered. 

Q. What followed ? . 



FRANCE. 167 

A. The queen, and Philip tiie young duke of Bur- 
gundy joined the English, witii whose assistance Henry 
inade an abnost entire conquest of France ; and a parlia- 
ment being held at Paris, the king of England was 
made regent of France, during t!ie life of Charles "S'l. 
and declared successor to that crown. But Henry V. 
of England dying, left an infant son Plenry V"I. who was 
crowned at Paris, in 1431. Charles the dauphin, how- 
ever, afterwards Charles VII. caused himself also to be 
proclaimed king, and recovei^d all the countries that 
had been taken by the English. 

Q. When did the first line of the house of Valois 
become extinct ? 

A. On the death of Charles VHI. who died in 1498 ; 
on which the crown descended to Louis XH. duke of 
Orleans, surnamed the Father of the people. He died 
in 1515, and was succeeded by Francis I. His reign, 
which continued 32 years, exhibits an important period 
in the history of P^urope. He was a formidable com- 
petitor with the emperor Charles V. for territory, pow- 
er and renown ; but was at length compelled to yield 
to his more powerful, crafty, and successful rival. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Henry H. v:ho married Catharine of 
the liouse of Medicis. In his reign the trench re- 
gained Calais, which had been possessed by the Eng- 
lish, something more than two centuries. After his 
death, his three sons, Francis II. Charles IX. and 
Henry III. successively mounted the throne. Under 
the first the religious disputes began to break out in 
France ; the Protestants vrere persecuted ; and under 
Charles IX. these disputes occasioned tv/o civil wars ; 
after the conclusion of which, in August 1572, was 
perpetrated the barbarous massacre of Paris, Henry III. 



168 moder:n history. 

who succeeded Charles IX. being thought to favour the 
Protestants, was assassinated by one Clements a monk. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Henry IV. king of Navarre ; in whose reign 
France enjoyed the fruits of a wise administration, and 
in some measure regained her former strength ; but 
Henry being a Protestant, rras obstinately opposed by 
the popish party ; and although he changed his religion 
in order to conciliate the attachment of his subjects, 
yet having passed the edict of Nantz, for the tolera- 
tion of the Protestants, who in France were called Hu- 
gonots, he was assassinated in the streets of Paris, by 
Ravaillac, a monk, in 1610. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Louis XIII. a minor of nine years of age ; Mary 
de Medicis, his mother, being declared regent, she in- 
vaded the liberties of the people, and revived the perse- 
cution against the Protestants, which occasioned ano- 
ther civil war. Cardinal Richlieu was, a few years after, 
appointed prime minister : he entirely subbued the par- 
liament of Paris, and overthrew all remains of liberty. 
The king when not quite fifteen years of age, married 
Ann of Austria, infanta of Spain, who was nearly his 
ov/n age. 

Q. When did he die*? 

A- In 1643, andv/as succeeded by his eldest son Lou- 
is XIV. an infant not quite five years of age ; the 
queen dowager being appointed regent during' his- mino- 
rity, and cardinal Mazarine prime minister. 

Q. What was the reign of this prince ? 

A. It was the longest and mcftt splendid in the 
French monarchy : in it he carried the power of France 
to its greatest height. To his kingdom he added the 
provinces of Alsace and Rousillon, with a considerable 
part of the Netherlands, the earldom of Burgundy and 



FRANCE. 169 

the principality of Orange. He alr.o enlarged bis do- 
minions in America and Asia, and placed his grand-son 
Philip of Anjou, on the throne of Spain ; Avhile naviga- 
tion, and manufactures were improved throughout the 
kingdom. 

Q. But did not his ambition and cruelty lead him to 
unwarrantable lengths ? 

A. Yes ; in 1689 he invaded the palatinate of the 
Rhine, and burnt and destroyed all the fine towns in it. 
He also repealed the edict of Nantz, and began a se- 
vere persecution against the Protestants, who fled into 
England, Prussia, and other countries. 

Q. Did he not meet with a great reverse of fortune ? 
A. Yes; the duke of Marlborough divested him of 
many conquests, exhausted his treasures, vanquished 
his armies, and spread want and Avretchedness over his 
dominions. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Lewis XV. in the year 1715, and was crowned at 
Hheims in 1722, a prince who united in himself the two 
opposite vices of avarice and prodigality, who, while he 
expended large sums in fruitless wars, and that system 
' of intrigue by which the cabinet of France affected t9 
direct the affairs of Europe, had a private treasury of 
his own in which he gratified his avarice with contem- 
plating an accumulation of property, extorted by the 
most uniust means from the peasantry of France. 

Q. What was the situation of France at the close of 
his reign ? 

A. Tii.e most complete system of despotism pervaded 
every department of tlie government, the king levied 
taxes by his sole authority ; the people were grievously 
oppressed, being liable to be forced to work on any of 
the pv;blic improvements, and imprisoned at the will of 

P 



170 MODERN HISTORY. 

the king or his ministers, to be condemned by the most 
venal courts of justice. Yet so wel! guarded were tliese 
abuseS; that they never could have been destroyed, had 
not the ambition of successive monarchs counteracted 
the arraiigements of this corrupt but ingenious system 
of despotism^ by their passion for war, and the ruin- 
ous practice of funding the public debt. 

Q. Who succeeded Lewis XV. in the government 
of France ? 

A. Lewis XVL in 1774 ; a prince whose heart was 
formed by nature of the best materials, and who from 
his first accession to power appeared to make the hap- 
piness of his people, if not the principal, at least one of 
the great objects of his government, and had the state 
of the finances not been irretrievably bad, the reform in 
the administration which he effected would have immor- 
talized his name. He removed the duke d'Aiguillon, and 
all the faction of the countess du Bavre from his coun- 
cils ; he recalled the count Maurepas v,diom the vici- 
ous policy of the late reign had banished from the 
court ; he restored the parliaments, the meml.ers of 
which had been removed from court by the fears or re- 
sentment of the late government ; he abolished that hor- 
rid engine of tyranny, the question by torture, and the 
most oppressive feudal privileges within his domains ; 
he disbanded the corps of Mousquetaires, the body ^ 
guard of the royal person : th.is spirit of reform com- 
mencing with the court, was afterwards carried to an 
Enthusiastic excess by tlie nation. 

Q. What were the causes which led to tlie extraor- 
a ..... 

dlnary change that took place durmg this reign r 

A. The disorders into which the fatal wars of for- 
mer reigns had thrown tlie nation, and the derangement 
CI the finances which they had produced, were such 
that neither the integrity of that upright statesmartTur- 



r 



FRANCE. 171 

got, nor the tcilentsof a Necker, were ever able to re- 
pair. In this situation, a circumstance occurred which 
to a country already burdened with debts and taxes, 
ccuid only be productive of total ruin. 

Q. What was this ? 

A. The unfortunate war which was kindled between 
Great Britain, and her North American colonies. In 
this contest, the court of France took a decided part in 
favour of the Americans ; in consequence of which it be- 
came fashionable in that country, to admire the spirit of 
liberty which had led the British colonies to emancipate 
themselves from the shackles of the mother country ; 
while the French troops, who were sent to this conti- 
nent, as allies of the United States, %vere every v. here 
witnesses of the benefits resulting from the principles of 
freedom enjoyed by those colonies. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Upon the triumph of the United States in theii* 
Independejice, and the return of the military to France, 
the misunderstanding imd contentions which for sever- 
al years, had subsisted between the king and his parlia- 
ments, were by no means abated, by the sentiments 
which had now spread throuc^h the nation- The dis- 
tressed state of the finances, made it necessary for the 
king to assemble the notables, consisting of a selection 
from three estates of the kingdom, the nobility, the cler- 
gy, and the commonalty. This meeting produced 
strong remonstrances against grievances, without any 
effectual offers of relieving the exigencies of goveru- 
menu 

Q. Was the nation satisfied ? 

A. No ; it elemanded a general deputation from the 
provinces and principal towns in the kingdom, which 
should give to the people at large a substantial weighs 
in tlie constitution, by rendering their concurrence ne- 



172 MODERN HISTORY. 

cessary to the framing of laws, and their authority 
dreadful to corrupt and profligate ministers. Great had 
been the sufferings, and hitherto, submissive the behavi- 
our of the nation : oppressed by a weight of taxes, le- 
vied in the most rip;orous manner, and so extremely 
misapplied that they were fiir from rendeiing the pub- 
lic revenue adequate to the expenditure ; bowing down 
the nt'ck to a haughty nobiiit)', who were themselves 
exempted from those contributions. At length the 
feelings of men prevailed over the habits of patient ac- 
quiescence, and they determined no longer to submit 
to these oppressive burdens. 

Q. What was the situation of the king ? 

A. Rendered unpopular, rather through the miscon- 
duct of the queen-consort and her favourites, than by 
any overt act of his own, he vainly attempted to sup- 
press this rising sentiment of discontent. The most ar- 
dent and active spirit of liberty was every where spread. 
Neither the bulwarks of kingly authority > nor the 
moiuids of the nobility and clergy were able .to repel 
the mighty torrent : it bore down all before it with an 
irresistible impetuosity. Tb.e national assembly (the 
three orders of the states having now adopted that de- 
nomination) limited the prerogatives of the king, anni- 
hilated the rank of nobility, and confiscated the property 
of the clergy. The king assented to these measures, 
and appeared much disposed to conciliate the affections 
of his people ; but all was insufficient, and his situation 
became increasingly perilous. His friends advised him 
to leave Paris, but he was intercepted in his flight and 
brought back, where he was tried by the national 
assembly, and condemned to die. He was executed 
on the 21st of January, 1793, and on the 16th of Octo- 
ber following his queen shared a similar fate. In Sep^ 
tcmber 1792 royalty had been abolished and republican-- 



FRANCE. 173 

hm Incepted. This revolution, wliich Ll fiist cLuced but 
little blood-shed, was eventually attended ^\i^:h the ut- 
most disorder, and the most unprecedented scenes ci 
savage cruelty. 

Q. Had Frcince%any other enemies to contend v.ilh, 
besides those v, i;hin her own dcminions ? 

A. Yes ; the powers of Europe were almost wholly 
combined against her ; and notwithstanding her domes- 
tic troubles, she astonishingly triumphed over her ene- 
mies. The frenzy for liberty v*'hich pervaded her ar» 
mles displayed ilself with great effect in the tield. Ita- 
ly, Switzcrlcind and Holland were overrun, and Kgypt 
invaded. But general Bonaparte, who commanded the 
forces hi that country, and whose success in arms had 
be;^ll unrivalled, abruptly quitted the army and return- 
ed to France, where on the 9th of November 1799 a 
rev'oluUon ensued, which placed him at the head of 
the government under the title of Fiist Consul. 
Q. What followed? 

A. In 1803 a general peace was restored, by the de- 
finitive treaty which was signed at Amiens on the 27th of 
JVlarch : but this peace was soon after interrupted by a 
declaration of hostiiiiies between r'r^aice and England, 
which has since produced a combination of m.ost of the 
European pov^ers against France. Curing these events, 
Bonaparte rendered himself sovereign of France, with 
a more elevated title than had been possessed by any 
of its mtonarchs since the time of Charlemagne. A 
resolution was brought into the French Tribunate, which 
was immediately sanctioned, and sent to the Conserva- 
tive S.endte, com. prised in the following terms. That 
Napoleon Bonaparte shall be declared Emperor of the 
French, and that the title, together with the imperial 
povrer, shall be hereditary in his family^ in the male 

P2 



174 MODERN HISTORY. 

line and in the ordei* of primogeniture. It here met 
with very little opposition, and ^vas pronounced as ah 
act of the existing government, and he was crowned 
bv Pius Vll. in 1801. 



SPAIN. 

Q. AVfl AT are the first accounts of Spain ? 

A. The r,borigincs of tlus country, as fur ls we can 
learn from history, were the Ccltcc and Iberians, who 
became blended in the common name of Celliberians. 
In very early times the Phoenicians resorted to the 
^vestern and southern coasts of Spain for the purpose 
of commerce. The Carthaginians, who sprang from 
the same origin, afterwards subdued the country, and 
held it for a considerable time, agahist all tbe efforts of 
tbe Romans to dispossess them ; but they Avere at 
length compelled to yield to their inflexible rival, 

Q. What follo\\'ed the destruction of the Roman 
empire ? 

A. The northern nations passed the Pyrennees, and 
overran Spain ; but the \^isigoths commanded by their 
king Atolphus, gained the ascendancy. A race of Go- 
thic kings succeeded during three centuries ; until, in 
711, Vitizza died, whose reign had been distinguished 
for the dissoluteness of the clergy, which he openly 
countenanced, and for the opposition which he shewed 
to the authority of the pope. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Roderick He was a v/arlike prince, and maintain- 
ed a severe contest with the Saracens, who had subdue^l 



SPAIN. 175 

Africa and crossed the Mediterranean in great numbers 
for the purpose of conquering Spain. In 714, he was 
slain, in one of the most bloody battles which history 
relates, and in which the invaders were victorious. The 
Visigoths, under a prince named Pelagius, withdrew 
into the northern parts of the kingdom, where they 
gradually formed themselves into a number of petty 
states, and amidst private animosities maintained a 
desultory war with the Saracens, whose strength be- 
came no less impaired by intestine divisions. 

Q. How long did the Saracens hold the southern 
provinces of Spain ? 

A. Until about the middle of the thirteenth century ; 
when they retained no other territories than the pro- 
vhiccs of Granada, Mercia, and Valencia. In 1463 the 
latter of these were almost wholly wrested from them, 
together with the peninsula of Gibraltar, which was 
conquered by Henry of Castile : and at length, by a 
concurrence of circumstances favourable to the Gothic 
race, who were now known by the name of Spaniards, 
an end was put to the disunion which had so long pre- 
vailed among the northern kingdoms, and such a de- 
gree of strength was acquired by the several states be- 
coming united under one king, that the Saracens were 
no longer able to maintain their ground. 

Q, When did the several provinces or kingdoms of 
Spain become united under one king ? 

A. In 1479, Ferdinand V. marriod Isabella, which 
united the two monarchies of Casiile and Arragon ; and 
caused at different times, all the other kingdoms of 
Spain to centre in one family. 

Q. To -what part of Spain were the Saracens, who 
were afterwards called Moors, confined at this time ? 

A. They were circumscribed within the limits of the 
kingdom of Grenada, which was amazingly populous 



176 MODERN HISTORY. 

Although one of smallest provinces into which Spain 
■was divided, it is said to have contained at that time, 
three millions of inhabitants ; who were industrious and 
ingenious, and were distinguished for the high cultiva- 
tion which they bestov.ed on their lands, the flcurish- 
ing state of their manufactures, and their extcnsivq^ 
commerce with the pons ©f the Mediterranean. 

Q. What wa'i the character of F'erdinand ? 

A. He was a prince endowed with great polidcal sa- 
gacity, and cnttrtainod very comprehensive views ; he 
was crafty in the cabinet, and enterpricsing in the field ; 
hi* ambition war, only equ. lied by his bigotry. His 
thirst oi dominion was insatiable, but he disdained to 
reign over any subjects !)Ul such as professed the Catho- 
lic fui^.h ; to secure which, tliat dreadful engir-c of ig- 
norance and tyranny, the inquisition, was instituted by 
him. 

Q. Did he extirpate the !\rcors? 

A. Yes ; ten years were employed in the conquest 
of Grenada, v/hen it was at len;:^tii effected. Such of 
the ]Moors as remained in tlie kingdom, and refused to 
profess Christianity, were put to death. Sixtus IV. who 
then filled the papal chair, ccm-^crred on I'erdinand, the 
title of "the Catholic'"* which was afterwards made he- 
reditary to the kings of Spain. 

O- What was the character of his consort Isabella? 

A. She possessed the milder virtues which adorn hu- 
man nature, and v. \i:h essentially benefit mankind with- 
out attracting wonder or admiration. She was successfully 
applied to by Columbus, to patronize an attempt to dis- 
cover another hemisphere ; an event, which in its con- 
sequences has effected a greater change in the man- 
ners, the interests, and the politics of Europe, thaii 
any other, if we except the powef of papacy. 



SPAIN. 177 

Q. \V'hen did [sabella die ? 

A. In 1504, and her husband in 1516, after having 
annexed the kingdom of Naples and Navarre to his 
Spanish sovercip,nty. His daughter Joanna married 
Philip of Austria, from whom descended Charles V. 
who became the greatest prince in Europe. He was at 
once emperor of Germany, king of Spain and Naples j 
held very valuable territories in the north-v.estern parts of 
Italy, and was sovereign of the whole lov/ countries, as 
well as those which were afterwards called the Seven 
United Provinces ; and gained a further enlargement 
of his dominions by the conquest of Mexico and the 
possession of Peru. 

Q. Did he not resign his dominions ? 
A. Yes; at length disgusted with the pomp of power 
tilld the projects of ambition, he resigned the empire to 
his brother Ferdinand, and his hereditary dominions to 
]iis son Pliiiip II. and retired to the monastery of Saint 
Juste, in the province of Estremadura, where he lived 
in a determined ignorance of all transactions which 
piissed in the world. 

Q. What was the cliaractcr of Philip II ? 
A. Accustomed to rule with a despotic sway, he be- 
held with great displeasure, the principles of the refor- 
mation spreading among his subjects in the seventeen 
provinces of the Netherlands, while the power of the 
clergy, the ignorance and superstition of the people, 
but, above all, the vigilance and severities of the inqui- 
sition, effectually excluded them fi'om Spain. The first 
object of Philip's reign was to enlarge his dominions on 
the side of France, but the death of his consort, queen 
Mary of England, which happened in 1556, greatly 
disconcerted the ambitious schemes which he had form- 
ed. By this event he lost all his power m England, as 
vrgll as an useful ally against France. 



178 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. What was his conduct towards his subjects in 
the Netherlands ? 

A. Determined to exterminate Protestantism, he com- 
raenccd a furious persecution, v/ldch causii;ig his sub- 
jects to revolt, he sent the duke cf x\lva to reduce them 
to obedience. This man was equally distinguished 
for his military t:;i!ents, and the obdurate cruelty of 
his heart. By superstition taught to consider barbarity 
as meritorious, he consigned with a pitiless apathy, 
many thousands to the hands of the executioner ; 
while in the field, his sword was ever reeking with 
the blood of the Protestants. 

Q. \Vhat was the conduct of the Flemings ? 

A. Rendered desperate by the secret fraud and open 
violence, which their eneini^S b^d practised against 
them, and being assisted by Elizabeth of England, and 
by France, they defended themselves with uncon- 
querable fortitude. Phihp, impatient of this long pro- 
tracted war, fitted out, in 1538, the most formidable 
fleet that had ever sailed upon the ocean ; and to 
strengthen this force v»'ith the energy of religion, the 
pope (Sixtus V.) bestowed on it his benediction, and 
stiled it the invincible armada. It consisted of 1 30 ships, 
most of which from their large size were unwieldy. 

Q. Did they succeed in their expedition ? 

A. No ; a violent tempest to which they were ex- 
posed, and the attacks of their enemies ; reduced theiTi 
in the course of one month, after they set sail from Co- 
runna, to no more than fifty-three ships ; twenty thou- 
sand persons having perished in the expedition. Alva, 
unable to subdue the revolted Flemings, was recalled 
to Spain, and employed by Philip, a few years after, in 
the conquest of Portugal, which he effected, and that 
kingdom remdned annexed to the crown of Spain for 
about sixty years. 



SPAIN. 179 

Q. When did Philip die? 

A. In 1598, and was succeeded by his son Phiiip III, 
who reigned for upv/ards of 22 years, without the am- 
bition or the crimes of his father. He transmitted the 
kinj^dom to his son Philip IV. in v.hose reign the duke 
of Eraganza recovered to Portugal its independence in 
r'640. A peace was also entered into with the Dutch, by 
which the king of Spain acknowledged the Seven Uni- 
ted Provinces to be free states. This king married his 
daughter Maria Theresa, to Louis XIV. of France, in 
1660, and died in 1665. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. Charles II. an infant of four years of age ; during 
whose minority, the queen dowager, Mary Anne of 
Austria, governed the kingdom. The king when 
eighteen years of age, married a daughter of Philip 
duke of Orleans, who by her mother v/as grand-daugh- 
ter to Charles I. of England ; but this marriage produc- 
ing no issue, on the death of Charles II. which happen- 
ed in 1700, the succession to the crown of Spain was 
contested between Philip duke of Anjou, second son of 
the Dauphin, and grand-son to Louis XIV. whom the 
deceased king had in his will named for his successor, 
and the arch-duke Charles of Austria, brother to the 
emperor Joseph. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The jealousy which prevailed on account of the 
increasing power of the French monarchy, occasion- 
ed a grand alliance to be formed between the maritime 
powers, and the house of Austria, to prevent the duke 
of Anjou from obtaining the crown of Spain, and to 
place that diadem on the head of the arch-duke Charles. 
This occasioned a long and destructive war; but the un- 
expected de?th of the emperor Joseph in 1711, chang- 
ed the political state of Europe ; and Charles succeed- 



180 MODERN HISTORY. 

ing his brother in the empire, the idea of maintaining 
the balance of power in Europe, which had procur€d 
such powerful support against the pretensions of Phi- 
lip, now pointed out the bad policy of suffering the em- 
pire and the kingdom of Spain to be once more held 
by the same sovereign. This, together with the reverse 
of fortune which had happened to Charles, by the de- 
feat of Almanza, occasioned the peace of Utrecht, 
which confirmed the crown of Spain to Philip, but strip- 
ped it of all those valuable appendages which had been 
for many years annexed to that mionarchy. The town 
of Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, were at this 
time ceded to the crown of Great-Britain : the Nether- 
lands and several valuable possessions in Italy passed to 
the house of Austria, and others to the duke of Savoy, 
who then obtained the title of king of Sicily ; but that 
island being afterwards exchailged for Sardinia, the 
title underwent a like change. 

Q. What was the situation of Spain after this war for 
the succession ? 

A. Her strength and resources were greatly exhaust- 
ed ; but Cardinal Alberoni, an Italian,who became minis- 
ter to Philip V. soon after he married the princess Eliza- 
beth, daughter of the duke of Parma, in 1714, laboured 
indefatigably to restore the kingdom to something of 
its former consequence. By his attention and superior 
talents, the Spanish navy was greatly augmented and 
rendered respectable. The designs of tliis statesman 
were so bold raid so extensive, that for a short term 
they appeared likely to effect great changes in the poli- 
tical system* of Europe ; but a powerful British fleet was 
sent into the Mediterranean, which withovit any previ- 
ous declaration of war, attacked the naval force of 
Spain, near the island of Sicily, took or destroyed the 
greatest part of their ships, procured the dismission of 



PORTUGAL. 181 

the minister, and at the same time formed the quadru- 
ple alliance between the powers of Great-Britain, 
France, and Holland, in conjunction with the emperor. 

Q. When did Philip V. die ? 

A. In 1746, and was succeeded by Ferdinand VI. 
who reigned 1 3 years, and dying without issue, was 
succeeded by his half brother Charles III. then king 
of the two Sicilies. 

Q. What was the character of this king ? 

A. The merit of his reign consisted rather in 
some useful internal regulations for the improve- 
ment of his kingdom, than in the system of politics 
which he pursued. In a contest with Great Britain, 
Tvhich took place during his reign, the Havannah was 
lost, and the Manilla captured ; but at the time when 
the peace which followed was negociated, the Havan- 
nah was restored to Spain. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1788, and was succeeded by his eldest soft, 
the king of Naples, who is now Charles IV. 



PORTUGAL. 

Q. GIVE ma a short view of the early settlement of 
Portugal ? 

A. It passed from the Phoenicians and Carthagini- 
ans into the hands of the Romans 250 years before 
Christ, and the emperor Augustus made it a Roman 
province. Toward the beginning of the fifth century, 
the Alans, and afterward the Swabians and the Visi- 
goths, successively made themselves masters of this 

Q 



182 MODERN HISTORY. 

country. In the eighth century it was overrun by the 
Moors, but was gradually wrested from them by the 
Christians. Henry, duke of Burgundy, distinguished 
himself by his eminent services against the Moors^ and 
was created earl of Portugal by Alphonso VI. king of 
Castile, who left him that kingdom in 1110. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Alphonso Henriques, who obtaining a sig- 
nal victory in 1 136, over the Moors, Was created king 
of Portttgal by the people ; and in 1181, at an assem- 
bly of the states, the succession of the crown was settled. 

Q. What followed? 

A. In 1383, the legitimate line of this family becom- 
ing extinct in the person of Ferdinand ; John I. his 
natural son, was two years after admitted to the crown ; 
and in his reign the Portuguese made settlements in A- 
friqa, and discovered the islands of Azores. In 1482 
his great grand-son John II. received the Jews, who 
had been expelled from Spain, and gave great encou- 
ragement to navigation and discoveries ; afterward, in 
the reign of king Emanuel, Vasco de Gama discovered 
a passage to the East Indies by doubling the cape of 
Good Hope. 

Q. Vv'hat other discoveries were made by the Portu- 
guese ? 

A. In 1500, Brazil was discovered by Don Pedro Al- 
varez. They also made very valuable discoveries in the 
East Indies, where they soon erected forts and suhdued 
the neighbouring inhabitants, and at the same time car- 
ried on a sanguinary w^ar in Africa. The pov/er of Por- 
tugal was then at its height; but in 1580, on the de- 
cease of Henry the Cardinal, the male line of the royal 
family became extinct, and in the sycceeding year the 
kingdom was subdued by Spain. 



PORTUGAL. 183 

Q. "What was the consequence ? 

A, They lost most of the advantages which they had 
obtained under their own monarchs ; their possessions 
in the East Indies, in Brazil, and on the coast of Africa, 
were neglected, and many of them v/rested from them 
by the new repubHc of Holland, and by other maritime 
powers : while at home they -were much oppressed ; 
but in 1640, they shook off the Spanish yoke, by elect- 
ing John duke of Braganza for their king. 

Q. What followed? 

A. This prince, who assumed the title of John IV. 
drove the Dutch out of Brazil, and from him ail suc- 
ceeding kings of Portugal have been descended. Al- 
phonso VI. his son, was dethroned by his brother Peter, 
who, in 1668, concluded a treaty with Spain, by which 
Portugal was declared an independent kingdom. This 
is said to havebe«n effected by the mediation of Charles 
II. of England, who had married the infanta Catharine, 
sister to Peter. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son John V. in 1706 ; and in 1729 a double 
marriage took place between the courts of Spain and 
Portugal, a prince of each court, marrying a princess of 
the otlier. 

Q. Who succeeded John V. ? 

A. His son Don Joseph, who had married the infan- 
ta of Spain. During his reign, a variety of misfortunes 
visited the kingdom. In 1755, there was an earthquake 
and conflagration at Lisbon ; and in 1758, the king very 
narrowly escaped assassination from a conspiracy which 
was formed against him ; in consequence of which, the 
noblest blood of Portugal was poured out on the scaf- 
fold ; and in 1762, the united force of France and Spain 
threatened to overrun the kir.gdom, but was prevent* 
ed by the interference of England. 



184 MODERN HISTOUT. 

Q. Who was appointed prime minister upon the acr 
( cssion of Joseph to the throne ? 

A. The marquis de Pombal, under tjic name of Car- 
valho. He had becu employed in an inferior depart- 
ment of the state, during the latte*' part of the former 
reign ; but now, such was the confidence reposed in him, 
that the whole management of public affairs was impli- 
citly entrusted to him. 

Q. Did he merit the hicjh tiTist reposed in him ? 

A. When he became first possessed of power, he 
wa& apparently patriotic; but was, in reality, influenced 
by narro\v and selfish motives. He began by establish- 
ing manufactures of various kinds : he enacted, that one 
third of the vmeyards should be converted into corn- 
fields, to feed the inhabitants with native bread, instead 
of importing corn from foreign markets j he made use 
of every means to reduce the enormous wealth of the 
clergy, which had arisen to such an height as to be 
supposed equal to that of the crown ; he laid the power 
of the inquisition under certain restrictions, and made 
its proceedings subject to the control of the civil juris- 
diction ; v/Uilc his antipathy to the Jesuits caused tl^at 
order to be expelled the kingdom. Such spirited pro- 
ceedings, could not fail to create many malcontents ; 
but if measures so salutary had been pursued on a truly 
patriotic principle, the greatest advantages must have 
been derived from them ; no such consequences, how- 
ever, followed. His great object was, not so much to re- 
form abuses, as to direct them into a new channel : ma- 
nufactures were indeed established, but founded on the 
avaricious views cf the minister, under whom the nomi- 
nal proprietors acted as agents. After having lessened 
the growth of vines, he made the wines produced in the 
kingdom, subject to an unjust and rapacious monopoly ; 
and when France and Spain declared war against Por- 
tugal in \7CZ, the national strength of tlie kingdom 



PORTUGAL. 185 

was quite inadequate to its defence : the army was un- 
disciplined, and witiiout sufficient clothing or arms. 
The murmurs that were circulated during this adminis- 
tration, were silenced by unrelenting severity : the pri- 
sons throughout the kingdom were crowded with those 
who had become objects of the minister's vengeance ; 
and the treatment they received there, would have add- 
ed ignominy to the history of a Dionysius. 

Q. Who succeeded Joseph ? 

A. His daughter Maria Frances Isabella, princess of 
Brazil, the present queen, in 1777 ; who, in 1760, had 
married her u'»cle Don Pedro, her father's brother; the 
pope's dispensation having removed the impediment 
arising from consanguinity. The eldest son by this 
marriage, the prince of Beira, in 1776, when fifteen 
years of age, married his mother's youngest sister, the 
princess IVIaria Bentdicta, who was then 31 years of 
a:,'-e. 

Q. Did the marquis de Pombal continue prime mi- 
nister after the accession of Isabella ? 

A' No ; one of her first acts was, to order him to be 
seized, and an exact inventory to l)e taken of his effects, 
which were found to exceed 600,000/. sterling ; his life, 
however, was spared ; but he was sent into banishment. 
The queen of Portugal not long since, sunk into a state 
of insanity, from which she is not likely ever to reco- 
ver ; and the affairs of the government are entrusted to 
a reurent. 



Q2 



IBO M-ODERN HISTORY. 



UNITED PROVINCES. 



Q. GIVE me the general outlines of the United Pro- 
vinces ; 

A. They were originally comprehended within the 
Netherlands, which, with that part of Germany which 
lies west of the Rhine, was possessed by the Romans, 
who called it Gallia Beigica ; but upon the decline of 
the Roman empire, the Goths, and other northern na- 
tions took possession of these provinces, and erected 
s^iveral small governments, which were a kind of limit- 
ed monarchies, v/hose sovereigns were stiled dukesj 
counts, or lords. These provinces afterwards be- 
came subject to the house of Burgundy, from whom 
they passed to the house of Austria. Charles V. was 
the first prince of this house, and as he v/as king of Spain, 
tmperor of Germany, and duke of Burgundy, he had 
diSererit interests from those of his predecessors, and 
treated the people of the Netherlands with great scve* 
rity. 

Q. Relate more, particularly his conduct towards^j 
them i* 

A. The reformation gaining ground in these pr<)- 
vinces, he published very rigorous edicts against tho&e 
who separated from the Romish church ; and Grotius 
afiirms, that during Charles's reign, above a hundred 
thousand persons suffered death for their religion ; but 
the number and courage of those who embraced the 
doctrines of the reformation, instead of being diminished 
by t.he horrors of persecution^ daily increased, and some- 
times the people rescued out of the hands of the officers. 



UNITED PROVINCES, 187 

those who were led to execution. Thus the Nether- 
lands became extremely alienated from the house of 
Austria, and their discontents increased on Charles's 
abdicating his throne in favour of his son Philip II. 

Q. What was the cause ? 

A. He treated them with still greater austerity than 
his father had done ; would admit only of the Popish 
reliiaon, and urged with fresh rigour, a sanguinary 
persecution against those who were called heretics : a 
court, resembling that of the inquisition, was instituted, 
and to these cruelties, were added insupportable taxes ; 
but at the time when Philip left the Netherlands, he 
appointed the prince of Orange governor over four of 
those provinces. The house of Nassau, of which the 
prince of Orange was a branch, derived its respective 
titles from the eleven counties of the principality of 
Nassau, in the imperial circle of the Upper Rhine. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. These oppressions being exercised with the most 
tyrannical fury by Ferdinand of Toledo, duke of Alva, 
whom Philip had created governor ; the Netherlands 
made a strong effort for their freedom, and William, 
prince of Orange, in conjunction with his brother, 
count Louis, of Nassau, undertook the defence of the 
inhabitants in their struggle for religious and civil liber- 
ty : In consequence of which, the states of Holland in 
their own names, confirmed the stadtholdership, a title 
.equivalent to lieutenant, on the prince of Orange, and 
several other towns and provinces declared for him. He 
first united them, in 1576, in one general association, 
under the title of the pacification of Ghent. 

Q, Was this union permanent ? 

A. No, it was soon dissolved ; but he exerted himself 
in forming a more durable alliance, which he accom- 
plished in 1579- In that year, the celebrated league of 



188" MODEl^N HISTORY." 

Utrecht was concluded, which gave navi;e to tlie United 
Provinces, and became the basis and plan of Iheir con- 
stitution. In 158 1, the prince of Orange was treache- 
rously shot by an assassin, 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The United Provinces continued to maintain the 
liberty to which they had raised themselves, and being 
supported by the Entj^lish, baffled all the attempts of the 
Spaniards. Their commerce arrived at such a pitch, 
that in 1602, their celebrated Fast India company was 
established ; and in 1609 the Spaniards, discouraged 
by the ill success of a tedious war, ai-jreed to an armis- 
tice for twelve years, andin the first article of the treaty, 
acknowledged the Lnited Netherlands to be a free and 
independent slate. DYn-ing this truce, the republic at- 
tained to a degree of power wiiich it has never since 
exceeded. 

Q. Who was stadtholder at that time ? 

A. Prince Maurice of Nassau, the second son of the 
first stadtholder, who was succeeded in 1625, by his 
h^ilf brother prince Frederick Henry. This prince 
greatly distin;j;uishcd himself in the war which had 
been again renewed, and which termirfated in 1648, by 
the peace of Munster, or Westphalia : Phihp IV. king 
of Spain having renounced all claim to the United Ne- 
therlands. Frederick v/as succeeded by his only son 
William. 

Q. What followed I 

A. In 1652, a war broke out between the United 
Provinces and England, which terminated two years 
after by a treaty, excluding the Housj of Orange from 
the sladtholdership of these provinces. In 1665, ano- 
ther war was kindled with England, which continued 
until the treaty of Breda : the states of Holland and 
West Friesland then passed an edict, by "which they 



UNITED PROVINCES. 189 

abolished the staclthcldership in tlieir province. When 
France formed a design of seizing on the Spanish Ne- 
therlands, the United Prorinces entered into an alliance 
Avifeh England and Sweden for the defence of those 
countries, by which France, in 1G68, was compelled to 
agree to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ; but she soon af- 
ter look a severe revenge by breaking that alliance. 
Q. In what manner ? 

A. Louis XIV. formed the design of extending his 
possessions in the Netherlands by the conquest of tlie 
Seven United Provinces ; and for this purpose, per- 
suaded the king of England to enter into a private trea- 
ty, by which he engaged to assist him in the conquest 
of Holland, in consideration of becoming Iiis pensioner, 
and being enabled to become an absolute monarch in 
his own kinijdom. 

Q. Did hostilities commence ? 

A. Yes ; without even a colourable pretext. Wil- 
liam princft of Orange was then twenty -two years of 
age, and the exigencies of the times caused him to be 
chosen stadtholder ; but he liad no force equal to the 
well-trained armies which approached his country. 
Q. When was this ? 

A. In 1672. The French passed tho Rhine without 
much opposition ; the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssal, 
and Gucldres, surrendered, and deputies were sent 
from the republic to implore peace ; but the terms 
offered them were so humiliating and oppressive, that 
they resolved to defend their country, their property, 
and their lives, to the last extremity. The prince of 
Orange acted with the most noble patriotism, while his- 
unwearied attention introduced discipline among his 
troops, and taught them to face their enemy with 
firmness. The great naval commander Dc Kuyte]-, 
at the same time, caused the fleet of the republic to 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

triumph over the combined force of France and Eng- 
land. 

Q. What followed? 

A. The stadtholdcrship was declared hereditary in 
the family of Orange, and the prince found means to 
unite the emperor, the empire, and the king of Spain, 
in a league to support the Dutch against the king of 
France ; and, in 1678. the peace of Nimeguen was sign- 
ed, and all the conquests which had been made in the 
Republican Provinces were restored, in consideration 
of a considerable sum of money being paid for the 
restitution. This William was the fifth stadtholder, and 
the third of that name ; he married the princess 
Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, and be- 
came king of that country. 

Q. When did he die ? 

A. In 1702, king of England and stadtholder of the 
United Provinces, and was succeeded in the United 
Provinces by John William prince of Orange, who 
died in 1751, and was succeeded by his son William V. 
when only three years of age ; the princess DoWager, 
his mother, who was princess royal of England, being 
the eldest daughter of George II. was appointed go- 
verness and guardian to the young prince. In 1766, 
William having arrived to 1 8 years of age, took upon 
himself the administration of public affairs. 

Q. What was the effect of the treaty between Hol- 
land and the United States which took place in 1780? 

A. The court of London cancelled all treaties of 
commerce and alliance, which then subsisted between 
that kingdom, and the United Provinces, and soon after 
issued a declaration of hostilities against the Republic, 
which proved extremely injurious to the possessions 
and wealth of the Dutch. 

Q. Waat followed ? 



UNITED PROVINCES. 191 

A. The republican, or anti-scadtholderian party, 
which had subsisted for a long time before, found in the 
ministry of France the most warm support, while the 
courts of London and Berlin were no less attentive 
to the claims of the Orange party. Internal dissen- 
sions thus fomented by foreign interference, rose to a 
destructive height ; and each party imbibed the most 
rancorous spirit against the other. In consequence of 
which, it Was thought no longer safe for the prince and 
princess to reside at the Hague ; they therefore retired 
in 1785 to Nimeguen. 

Q. Was he re-instated ? 

A. Yes ; by the aid of the king of Prussia, their ci- 
vil commotions terminated with very little bloodshed, 
and the Stadtholder returned to Hague accompanied 
with the princess and their children. But in 1792, 
the United Provinces joined the allied powers ggainst 
France, and in 1795, they were overrun by the French, 
under whose influence the people obliged the Stadthol- 
der to abdicate his authority, and established a republi- 
can form of a government. It is now called the Bata- 
viati republic. 



SWITZERLAND 

Q. WHO were the first inhabitants of Switzerland ? 

A. The Helvetians. They were a Gaulish or Celtic 
people, and Helvetia, which received its name from 
them, was divided into four cantons or territories. Juli- 
Vis C^sar first reduced the inhabitants under the domi- 
nion of the Romans, who retained their power until 
the fifth century, when the country was overnm by the 



192 MODERN HISTORY. 

Burgunclians and Germans, and at length became unit- 
ed to the German empire. But, about 1300, the em- 
peror Albert I. not only refused to confirm their anci- 
ent privileges, without deigning to assign any cause 
for his refiisal, but set over the Swiss two noblemen 
who were alike stigmatized for their -avarice and arro- 
gance : their administration becoming insupportable, 
the people addressed their petitions and complaints to 
the emperor, but without success. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The people universally expressed their abhorrence 
of the tyrants ; and the inhabitants of Uri, Schwitz 
and Underwald, united in order to defend themselves 
to the last extremity. For this purpose they chose 
three cofnmanders, gentlemen of approved courage 
and abilities, who secretly agreed to surprise and de- 
molish the castles in which the governors resided. 

Q. In what manner did the three cantons unite ? 

A. They joined in a league for ten years, which 
gave birth to the Helvetic confederacy ; the emperor 
Albert, however, determined totally to reduce these 
places by force of arms, and for that purpose hasted 
to Braden to begin his preparations ; but being on his 
return murdered by John of Hapsburg, the design was 
dropped, until the house of Austria invented other 
pretexts for fallin.^ on the united cantons. 

Q. What event followed of importance ? 

A. In 1315, Leopold, duke of Austria, attacked the 
confederates with an army of 20,000 men, but was de- 
feated at Morgarten, in the canton of Schwitz, although 
the whole Swiss army did not amount to more than 
1 300 men. Upon this event, they entered into a per- 
petual alliance, under the common name of Switzers ^ 



SWITZERLAND. 193 

Tirhich name has been extended to all the other cantons 
and their alhes, on their bcinij received into the union. 

Q. Did the Svvitzers revenge themselves upon their 
governors ? 

A. No ; the firmness and intrepidity v/ith which they 
conducted themselves in the recovery of their lil^erty 
were equalled only by the moderation \vhh which they 
behaved to their tyrannical rulers, whom they conducted 
out of their territories, and contented themselves with 
exacting an oath from them, that they would never 
more set foot in that country. 

Q. When did the other cantons join the confederacy ? 

A. Lucern acceded to the alliance in 1332 ; Zurich 
and Claris in 13j1 ; and they were joined by Zug and 
Bern in 1352. For 125 years this confederacy was 
composed only of these eight cantons; but in 1481, 
Freyburg and Solothurn were admitted into the con- 
federacy ; and in 1501, Basil and Schauffhauscn ; and 
in 1531 Appenzel also acceded to it. 

Q. How far does the federal union extend ? 

A. No farther than is necessary for their mutual de- 
fence, and the accommodating of differences, which 
may arise between two or more towns or cantons : 
in all other affairs they are left to their liberty. Thus 
the whole Helvetic confederacy properly consists of 
thirteen distinct republics, or free states, united by 
oath for their mutual security and defence. For some 
centuries it supported itself in an absolute freedom 
and independency ; made wars, concluded treaties, 
received and sent envoys from and to the several 
European powers ; entered into alliances with them ; 
gave what form they thought proper to their consti- 
tution ; enacted laws and ordinances, both in tempo- 
ral and spiritual affairs ; and exercised all the various 
prerogatives of sovereignty. But a revolution took 

R 



194 MODERN HISTORY. 

place in 1797 through the influence of the arms of 
France, and the coimtry is now in a very unsettled 
fttate. 



GENEVA. 

Q. GIVE me some account of the republic of Ge- 
neva ? 

A. It was the last of the allies of Switzerland, and 
is of but small extent. Exclusive of the city of Geneva, 
it does not contain above eleven parishes, eight of 
v/hich v.'ere partly under the jurisdiction of the duke 
of Savoy ; but it was notwithstanding, a considerable ally 
of the Swiss cantons. This republic although occu- 
pying a very small space on the continent of Europe, 
has recommended itself to the notice of mankind, on ac- 
count of the distinguished virtues, and the love of li- 
berty, whicli have ohaj-acterised its citizens. In 1798 
Geneva was annexed to the French republic* 



THE ECCLESIASTICAL STATE IN ITALY. 

Q. YOU have formerly giAen me an account of Italy 
and of its triumphs over the rest of the world, as well 
as of its downfal through eiTeminacy and luxury ; what 
is the present situation of the inhabitants of that coun- 
try ? 

A. The softer arts have now taken place, and seem 
the chief employment of the modern Italians. The 



ECCLESIASTICAL STATE. 195 

firist painters who distin.:>uished themselves were gene- 
rally also statuaries and architects, and their works are 
still the admiration of the curious. The invention of 
engraving is claimed by the Italians ; but that honour is 
justly due to the Germans alone ; for Andrew Manteg- 
na, who died in 1517, was the first that applied himself 
with success to this art in Italy. This country, howe- 
vei', has produced great men in all sciences, and former- 
ly gave birth to those orators, poets, and historians, 
whose writings will be revered as long as polite learn- 
ing and elegant composition, are considered as the or- 
naments of human nature. 

Q. What part of Italy is that which is termed the 
Ecclesiastical state or territory of the pope ? 

A. It is bounded on tlie N. by the dominions of 
Venice ; on the E. by the Adriatic ; on the S. E. and S. 
by the kingdom of Naples and the Mediterranean ; and 
on the \V. by the grand dutchy of Tuscany and the ter- 
ritories of INIodcna : 240 miles from N. to S. and from 
1 20 to 20 wide. 
Q. What is the situation of this Ecclesiastical state ? 
A. It is but ill cultivated, poor and thin of inhabitants, 
the city of Bologna only excepted. Trade and manufac- 
tures have been but little encouraged, and ccnsequent- 
ly but little attended to. The multitude of convents 
which prevented the increase of inhabitants ; the many 
hospitals that habituated the people to idleness ; the 
inconceivable wealth in the churches and convents, 
which lay dormant, without the least advantage to the 
public ; and the inquisition, which Avould not permit the 
want of inhabitants to be supplied by those of another 
religion, have been some of the great causes of the 
wretched condition of the papal dominions. 

Q. What was originally considered the privileges of 
the pope ? 



196 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. Accoixling to the ancient canon-law, he was 
the supreme, universal, and independent head of the 
ciiurch, and invested with soverei;;nty over all Chris- 
tian communities, and every individual member. Ke 
claimed a rii;ht to prescribe laws to the whole world. All 
soverei;;ns were to pay him homai^e. He has deposed 
both disobedient and ill-governing princes, and i.\iven 
their dominions to (Uhcrs. He claimed a right to exa- 
mine any person promoted to a kingdom, and might 
require an oath of allegiance from liim. On the vacan- 
cy of a throne, the government has devolved to him ; 
and he has assumed the right over states, to use both 
the temporal and spiritual sword. This is a short 
sketch of the extravagancies in the political system of 
the court of Rome, which, notwithstanding its impiety 
and absurdity, has been ambitiously obtruded on the 
world ; and was for ages tyrannically put in practice. . 
Q. Are these maxims admitted in the present day ? 
A. No; the reformation, the increase of learning", 
and the spirit of free inquiry A\hich lias spread over 
the world, has occasioned them to be treated with the 
utmost contempt, by the rational part of Christendom ; 
and the pope has been wholly stripped of that unbound- 
ed power which he so arropantly assumed. 

Q. Has not this occasioned tiie abuses, with which 
the reformers justly charged the court of Rome, to be 
greatly removed ? 

A. Ves ; princes, insteafl of being treated with threats 
and anathemas, are now addressed with gi'eat civility 
and condescension ; the clergy and monks have become 
more enlightened and moderate ; and although their 
zeal for bringing over Protestants to their church has 
not diminished ; yet they do not use such violent and 
cruel means as they ibrmeriy did, except in a few 
countries more bigotted than tlie rest ; nor do they 



NAPLES AND SICILY. 197 

U'eat those who dissent from them with such uncha- 
ritable language and virulence. Protestants of all de- 
nominations are received with urbanity in those coun- 
tries, and the learned of all religious persuasions main- 
tain an epistolary intercourse with each other, upon 
principles of friendship and candour. 



Tin: KiNGDorii or naples and sicily. 

Q. WHERE is the kingdom of Naples situated, and 
by \\ horn was it first peopled ? 

A. The kingdom of Naples joins the Ecclesiastical 
state on the S. E. and comprises all tlie southern part 
of the peninsula of Italy. It is separated fiomthc island 
of Sicily by a narrow strait, called the Faro: the 
provinces of which the kingdom consists were peopled 
from (ireece. It became a part of tiie dominions of 
the Roman republic, and afterwards of tlic emperor. 
In the fifth century Naples and Sicily were overrun by 
the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and llerulians. In 800, Na- 
ples was subdued by Charlemagne : the Saracens af- 
terwards took Sicily, and frequently committed great 
ravages in Italy j but it was at length conquered by 
tlie Normans in the eleventh century. Tancred the 
Norman, and his twelve sons, having greatly contribut- 
ed to effect this service, the pope bestowed on them a 
part of the kingdom of Naples ; and Rodger, the grand- 
son of Tancred, was made king of the two Sicilies, or 
the kingdom of Naples and island of Sicily. 

Q. Who was the last legitimate descendant ©f 
Rodger ? 

R2 



198 MOUEllN HISTORY. 

A. Constanlia, the wifti of tlie emperor, Hemy I\'. 
who dying in 1 198, the succession devolved on her son 
Frederick II. empei'or of Germany ; and thus the 
kinf.^lom fell to the Iionse of Swahia. But on the death 
ot his son Conrad IV. the pope being determined on 
the expulsion of the house of Swabia, offered the kinc^- 
dom to Charles of Anjou, who at length was establish- 
ed on tlie throne. 

Q. Vv'hat f<3l!owed ? 

A. In 1504, Ferdinand the Catholic, king- of Spain, 
obtained possestiion of the kingdom ; and Naples conti- 
nued to be governed by Spanish viceroys, till the begin- 
ning of the last century. 

Q. What change then took place ? 

A. In 1707 it was coj.qucred by prince F.ugcne for 
Charles III. afterwards emperor, by the title of Charles 
VI. and was confirmed to him by the treaty of Utrecht ; 
and the island of Sicily was ceded to the duke of Sa- 
voy, v.'ho afterwards exchanged it for that of Sardinia, 
and was acknowledged kin;y by that name. 

Q. Did it remain long in the possession of the em- 
peror ? 

A. No; it was conquered by the infant of Spain, Don 
Carlos ; and in 1735, the emperor, by a formal instru- 
ment, ceded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily to him 
and his heirs, as an equivalent for which, he was invest- 
ed v/ith the dutchies of Parma and Flacentia. In 1788, 
the king of the two Sicilies succeeded his father Charles 
III. in the kingdom of Spain, and resigned his Italian 
kingdom to his second sou Ferdinand IV. 



VENICE. 199 

Q. WHO were the founders of the republic of Ve- 
nice ? 

A. About the middle of the fifth century, the Veneti, 
a people inhabiting a small district of Italy, a few Padu- 
ans, and some peasants en the banks of the Fo, to es- 
cape the fury of Atliia, repaired to the marshes and 
small islands which lay on the western coast, at the bot- 
tom of the Adriatic (]ulf. Soon after the city of Padua 
sent a colony thither, and appointed some of their citi- 
zens to act as xnagistrates, who held their dignity for a 
year, and were succeeded by others. 

Q. Were there not other emigrations to this place ? 

A. Yes; on the taking of Aquileia by the Huns un- 
der Attila, a multitude of wretched fugitives increased 
the population; and in 452, the city of Venice v/as 
founded. 'J'he \''enetians at length became an indepen- 
derit republic, and in a course of years obtained the 
territories of Padua. 

Q. Did the republic increase in power ? 

A. Yes; even the commotions which agitated in a 
greater or less degree, most part of the continent of 
Europe, during the three centuries which succeeded 
its establishment, so far from involvincr Venice in wars, 
or endangering its security, signally promoted its wealth 
and its power. The genius of the people stimulated by 
unparalleled advantages of situation, prompted them to 
commercial pursuits, and they soon became the great-" 
est maritime state on the globe. 

Q. What was the form of government ? 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. Its original form M^as purely democratical, which 
subsisted for 150 years; a chief magistrate was then 
made choice of, upon whom was conferred the title of 
duke, which has since been corrupted to doge : this dig- 
nity was elective and held for life ; he was even entrust- 
ed with the power of nominating to all offices, and of 
making peace and declaring Mar. 

Q. Did any change take place in the manner of 
electing the doge ? 

A. Yes ; ill 11 73, the council of forty, which at that 
time was the only tribunal at Venice, found means to 
new model tho government, by gaining the consent of 
the people to delegate the right of voting for magii^- 
trates, which each citizen possessed, to 470 persons call- 
ed counsellors, who received the appellation of the 
grand council ; and acting as delegates of the people, 
became what the general assembly of the people, until 
that time, had been. 

Q. What was the consequence ? 

A. By this artful innovation the democracy became 
subverted, and an aristocracy, in its fullest and most 
rigid form, v»as introikiced, by restricting the power of 
the doge, and introducing a variety of officers, (all of 
whom, in a short time, were chosen from among the 
nobility,) v.hich effectually controled both the prince 
and the people. 

Q. Did the Venetians increase their territories ? 

A. Yes, they extended them into Lombardy, Istria, 
and Dalmatia, and became masters of many of the 
islands in the Archipelago, particularly of Candia ; they 
were also m.asters of Morea, and in the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, Dandolo, tlieir doge, in conjanction 
with tl'e French, took Constantinople from' the Turks, 
About this time they engrossed a lucrative trade in the 
manufactures and productions of the East Indies, which 



VENICE. 201 

they procured at the port of Alexandria, and conveyed 
to every markjet of Europe. 

Q. Did the commerce and power of the Venetians 
continue to flourish ? 

A. No ; towaid the end of the fifteenth century they 
began to decline. The PoriUi^uese havini^; sailed round 
the Cape of Good Hope, and found tiie way to the East 
Indies by sea, that valuable trade was acquired, first by^ 
the discoverers, and afterward by the Dutch and Eng- 
lish. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the 
pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain, 
joined in the famous league of Cambray, which threat- 
ened the subversion of the Venetian state ; but she 
made a noble stand against her numerous and powerful 
enemies, and retained her independence ; with the loss, 
however, of all her possessions in the Ecclesiastical 
state, and the JNlilanese. In the seventeenth century, 
Venice was engaged in a war witii the Turks, during 
which she lost Candia, and afterwards all other places 
and districts whicii they had taken from the Turks. 

Q. Has not this republic been of longer standing than 
most others ? 

A. Yes; no republic in the history of the world, has 
subsisted for so long a space of time ; it has continued 
upward of thirteeu hundred years, amidst many foreign 
wars, aiid intestine commotions ; and, as its mdepen- 
dencc was not founded on usurpation, nor cemented 
with blood, so its descent from that elevation and 
power which it had once attained, to its present con- 
tracted state, instead of degrading, rv-'fiects the highest 
lionour on the government as well as the people. 
None of the causes which subverted the famous re- 
publics of antiquity, effected the decline of this state. 
No tyrants enslaved, no demagogues deluded, no lux- 
uries enervated them, 'i'hey owed tb.cir greatness to 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

their industry, bravery, and maritime skill ; and their 
decline, to the revolutions which pursuits of science had 
produced in the nations of Europe. 

Q. But did not the French revolution affect ihi« 
country ? 

A. Yes ; it was overrun by the French, and at the 
peace of 1801, was given up to the emperor of Ger- 
many. 



GENOA. 

. Q. BY whom was Genoa possessed in ancient times ? 

A. By the Ligurians, and the city of Genoa was the 
capital of Liguria : it was destroyed by Mago the Car- 
thaginian, but rebuilt by the Romans, and on the de- 
cline of that empire, fell under the power of the Ostro- 
goths, out of whose hands it was rescued by th^- famous 
Belisarius, and rendered subject to the eastern empire. 
In 670, it was sacked by the Longobardi ; but being af- 
terwards rebuilt, continued under that dominion till 
they were expelled Italy by Charlemagne. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. It erected itself by degrees into an independent 
state ; and soon after its power became so increased by 
its flourishing trade, that in 805, it reduced the island of 
Corsica. In the twelfth century the Genoese subdued 
half Sardmia, and the city of Syracuse in Sicily. 

Q. Did they not join the Greeks in an expedition 
agamst Constantinople ,? 



GENOA. 5203 

A. Yes ; by their assistance, the Greeks subverted 
the dominion of the Latins in Constantinople, and estab- 
lished the imperial family on the throne. In recom- 
pense for their services, the Greek emperor gave them 
Pera, the chief suburb of Constantinople, to be held as 
a fief of the empire, together with such exemption from 
accustomed duties on goods imported and exported, as 
gave them a decided superiority over every competitor 
in trade. The Genoese availed themselves of this fa- 
vourable situation, surrounding their new settlement 
with fortifications, and rendering their factories on the 
adjacent coasts, places of strength. They were masters 
of the harbour of Constantinople more than the Greeks 
themselves. The whole trade of the Black sea came 
into their hands ; and they took possession of the 
Chersonesus Taurica, the modern Crimea, and render- 
ed Kaffa, the chief seat of their trade with the east. 

Q. What was the consequence of these acquisitions? 

A. Genoa became the greatest commercial power in 
Europe, and if the enterprising industry, and intrepid 
courage of its citizens, had been under the direction of 
wise domestic policy, it might have long held that rank ; 
but never was there a contrast more striking, than be- 
tween the internal administration of the two rival repub- 
lics of Venice and Genoa ; in the former, government 
was conducted with a steady systematic prudence ; 
in the latter, it was consistent in nothing, but a fondness 
for novelty, and propensity to change. 

Q. What other acquisitions did they make to their 
territories ? 

A. In the thirteenth century they added to their con- 

. quests, the towns of Albenza and Savona, wiiii others 

in their neighbourhood ; but being engaged in a long 

and expensive war with Venice, which lasted until 

It 1381, they were so wealtened, that they became unable 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

to maintain the possession of" Crimea, from which 
they were entirely driven by the Tartars in 1474. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The republic suifered many severe shocks from 
■the intestine divisions which arose respecting the form 
of government, which so debilitated the state, that the 
people were obliged to put themselves sometimes 
under the protection of the duke of iViilan, and at 
others, under that of tlie kings of France ; but the 
latter having treated them with intolerable rigour, 
Andrew Doria, in 1528, rescued his country out of 
their hands, and established its present form of govern- 
ment : after which Genoa generally confederated with 
Spain. 

Q . Did not this involve them in quarrels with France ? 

A. Yes ; in 1684, the capital w^as bombarded by the 
French, when the republic, to save it from total destruc- 
tion, was obliged to submit to the most humiliating 
terms, one of which v>^as, that they should disarm 
all their gallies except six, and fit out no more, without 
the French king's consent. 

Q. Did they not afterwards enter into an alliance 
with that country ? 

A. Yes ; they entered into an alliance with France, 
Spain, and Naples, and, in 1745, declared war against 
the king of Sardinia, who dtmanded their giving up 
the marquisate of i inale, which they had purchased of 
Charles VI. emperor of Germany, in 1713, and which, 
in 1743, his eldest daughter, queen of Hungary, ceded 
to the king of Sardinia. 

Q. Were they successful ? 

A. No ; in the following- year they were severely 
beaten by Great Britain and the queen of Hungary. 
The king of Sardinia made himself master of all the 



GENOA. 205 

Riviera di Ponente ; several Genoese ports were bom- 
barded by the English fleet, and the imperialists seized 
on the city of Genoa ; but after a severe loss on both 
sides, they were driven out by the inhabitants. 

Q. When was the tranquillity of the republic restored ? 
A. In 1748, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle : but a 
war with Corsica, which had been occasioned by their 
revolting, was continued ; and the expenses incurred 
by this war, being found to exhaust the public trea- 
sury, the government was induced to sell and transfer 
that Island to the French in 1768. A conveyance 
founded in injustice, and for the accomplishment of 
which many thousand lives were lost. 

Q. What were the territories of the republic after 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 

A. The Riviera di Levante, Riviera di Ponte, and 
the Marquisate of Finale. It consists of an extensive 
tract of country, stretching along the coast of a capa- 
cious gulf in the Me<iiterranean, which is now called 
the Gulf of Genoa. The form of government in this 
republic, like that of Venice, was aristocratical ; the 
chief person was called the doge or duke, to which 
dignity no person Avas promoted till fifty years of age. 
Q. What change has taken place in this country ? 
A. It was overrun by the French, and at the peace 
of 1801, Genoa and the adjacent county formed a part 
of the Ligurian republic j but it is now united to 
France. 



206 MODERN HISTORY. 



SAVOY AND SARDINIA. 

Q. What \rere the dominions of the king of Sardinia ? 

A. They were the diitchy of Savoy, the principality 
of Piedmont, in which is the city of Turin the capital, 
the province of Nice, the dutchy of Montferrat, with 
several districts formerly belonging to the dutchy of 
Milan, and the island of Sardinia, which confers the 
regal title on the duke of Savoy. 

Q. By whom was Savoy formerly possessed ? 

A. By the Allobroges, and was not brought under 
subjection to the Romans until the time of Augustus, 
On the decline of that empire it was conquered 1)y the 
northern nations, and afterwards became incorporated 
with the kingdom of Burgundy. Charlemagne then 
possessed himself of it, and conferred it on Hugh, 
duke of Saxony, w^hom he created duke of Savoy, 
and prince of Piedmont, in which family those dignities 
have been transmitted to the present time. When 
Louis XIV. carried the desolations of war into Italy, 
Victor Amadaeus II. duke of Savoy, who had joined the 
first grand alliance which was formed at the Hague 
In 1690, and who commanded the confederates, engag- 
ed Catinat at the head of the French army near Turin ; 
the French, however, gained a very decisive victory. 
But in 1695, the French monarch concluded a separate 
peace with the duke of Savoy, by which the latter 
recovered Nice, and several other territories. 

Q. Did the duke of Savoy join in the second grand 
alViance ? 

«A. Yes ; and the consequence was, the reduction of 



SAVOY AND SARDINIA. 207 

the county Nice, with the greatest part of Piedmont ; 
and, in 1706, the French laid siege to Turin, but 
prince Eugene attacked and routed their army, relieved 
the place, recovered Piedmont, and saved Italy. This 
great general was of the house of Savoy. By so de- 
cisive a victory, the duke recovered his lost territories. 

Q. What advantages did he gain by the peace of 
Utrecht ? 

A. Sicily was ceded to him, and he was acknowledged, 
by the powers of Europe, king of that island. He after- 
wards, in 1718, exchanged the island of Sicily for that 
of Sardinia with the court of Spain, of which he took 
the title of king. 

Q. What foUowed ? 

A. In 1723, he published a body of laws for the use 
of his subjects, which greatly relieved them from vex- 
ation and tedious sidts ; and in 1730, he resigned his 
crowTi to his eldest son Charles Emanuel, prince of 
Piedmont. 

Q. What was the nature of his reign ? 

A. On the death of Augustus king of Poland, he 
leagued with France against the house of Austria. 
At the battle of Guastalla, in 1734, the imperialists 
•\vere commanded by count Koningsegg, and the French 
and Piedmontese, by the king of Sardinia, who, by his 
bravery and conduct, obtained a decisive victory. A 
peace was concluded, in 1735, to which the king of 
Sardinia acceded, although the conditions were unfavour- 
able to his interests. On the death of the emperor 
Charles VI. the king of Sardinia declared in favour of 
the queen of Hungary. By the war which followed he 
acquired some additional territories. 

Q. State the particulars ? 

A. The ninth article of the treaty of Worms, entered 
into by the king of Great Britain, the queen of Hunga 



208 MODERN HISTORY. 

fy, and tlie king of Sardinia, gave to the latter the mar- 
quisate of Finale, then possessed by the Genoese, which 
was to be made a free port ; but in the campaign of 
ir4'4-, the Spanish and French combined army, passed 
the Var, and took the town of Nice. The next year 
the Spanish and French courts leagued with the republic 
of Genoii, to attack the dominions of the king of Sardinia. 
In 1716, the king, having received some assistance from 
the queen of Hungary, drove the French from the pla- 
ces they had taken, and shut them up in the city Placen- 
tia ; v/hich brought on the battle of Rottoffredo, in 
which tjic French opened a passage for a flight out of 
Italy, abandoning Genoa to the resentments of her ene- 
mies. They were followed by their allies into France. 
The king of Sardinia then took Savona and Finale, and 
the next year gained the battle of Exilles, by which the 
flam33 of war were prevented from once more spreading^ 
into the heart of Italy. 

Q. Did he not gi/o up some of hi^ acquired territo- 
ries at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 

A. Yes ; he engaged to restore to the republic of Ge- 
noa, and to the duke of Modena, whatever had been ta- 
ken from them, which deprived him of Savona and 
Finale, as well as all that had been stipulated in his fa- 
^our by the treaty of Wonns ; but the dutchy of Savoy 
and county of Nice were restored to him. 

Q. By whom was he succeeded ? 

A. By his eldest son Victor Amadseus III. who 
was born in 1726. In 1729, the French overran Sa- 
voy, and annexed it to the territories of the republic. 

Q. Give me a short account of the island of Sardinia ? 

A. It has undergone many changes with respect to 
its government ; it was once subject to the Carthagini- 
ans ; the Romans held it next, and kept possession of it 
until the decline of the empire, when, in the ninth cen« 



TUSCANY. 209 

lury, It fell into the hands of the Saracens, who were af- 
terward expelled by the Genoese and Pisans, from which 
time they were governed by petty princes of their o^vn. 

Q. Did this island escape the troubles which soon after 
agitated Europe ? 

A. No ; it sufifererd greatly during the wars between 
the Pisans and Genoese, as well as afterward, during 
those between the emperors of Germany and the popes. 
Boniface Ylll. at last granted it, in 1298, to James 
king of Arragon, whose son Alphonso IV. after much 
opposition, made himself master of it in 1324. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. From this time it continued under the dominion 
of Spain, and was governed by a viceroy, till 1708; 
when the Knglish making a conquest of it for Charles 
III. afterwards emperor, by the title of Charles Xl. it 
M'as confirmed to him by the treaty of Utrecht. In 1717 
it was recovered by the Spaniards, and the next year the 
emperor exchanged it for Sicily with the duke of Savoy, 
who was put in possession of it in 1720. 



FLORENCE OR TUSCANY. 

Q. HOW is Tuscany situated ? 

A. The grand dutchy of Tuscany, of which Florence is 
the most considerable part, both with respect to extent 
and populousness, but to which Sienna and Pisa are add- 
ed, borders on the Mediterranean, which here receives 
its name from the dutchy, and is called the Tuscan sea ; 
it is also bounded by the Ecclesiastical state, the dutchy 
of Modena, and the republic of Lucca, 

S2 



210 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. What was Tuscany originally called ? 

A. Etruria, or Tuscia, from its ancient inhabitants 
the Etrurii or Tuscani ; but the present dutchy does not 
comprehend all the ancient Etruria. This country fell 
under the dominion of the Romans about 455 years be- 
fore Christ ; the Ostrogoths afterward possessed it in 
the fiRh century, and then the Lombards, who were driv- 
en out by Charlemagne in 800, when it had acquired 
the name of Florence ; after which it became subject to 
the German emperors; but in the thirteenth century it 
became an independent state. 

Q, What followed ? 

A. Toward the conclusion of the fourteenth, and in the 
beginning of the fifteenth century, John de Medicis, a 
nobleman of Florence, distinguished himself by his 
wisdom, his wealth, and his popularity ; he was the found- 
er of the Medici family, which flourished for more than 
three hundred years ; the lineal descendants from his 
eldest son Cosmo, in the male line, continuing for more 
than a century, and those of Lorenzo, his second son, 
subsisting two centuries aftei ward. From this ancestor 
have sprung more men distinguished for genius, capaci- 
ty, ambition, taste, and patronage of the fine arts, than 
from any other family in Europe ; while most of them 
were not less characterized for their licentiousness and 
unprincipled profligacy ; many of their women likewise,. 
were highly celebrated for their personal charms, their 
litrength of mind and accomplishments, as well as fo.r 
their advantageous marriages, and illustrioits descen- 
dants. 

Q. When did Cosmo the son of John die ? 

A. In 1464. He obtained the title of the Father of 
his country, and the Reviver of the arts. He was suc- 
ceeded by Lorenzo, grand-son of John, called the Mag- 
nificent, and Father of the Muses, who died in 1492 j 



tuscanV. 211 

having escaped the fate of his brother Julian, "who was 
killed m the church of Saint Rafiarata, in 1478, by an 
assassin, who with others, had undertaken to despatch 
both the brothers, in order to promote the political in- 
terests of pope Sixtus IV. but failing in their attempt 
upon Lorenzo, they were immediately executed. 

Q. Had not these two brothers the honour of having 
each a son raised to the papacy ? 

A. Yes ; John the second son of Lorenzo, was the 
famous Leo I'C. and Julio, the posthumous and illegi- 
timate son of Julian, within two years after the death 
of Leo, succeeded by the title of Clement VIL From 
the eldest son of Lorenzp, descended Lorenzo, duke of 
Urbino, who is supposed to have been the father of 
Alexander, the first duke of Florence, and his daughter 
Catharina married Henry H. of France. 

Q. What was she distinguished for ? 

A. For her cruelty and superstition, which the dread- 
ful massacre of Paris in 1572, too fully attested. She 
was mother of the three succeeding kings of France. 

Q. When was Alexander Medicis created duke of 
Florence ? 

A. In 1531, by the emperor Charles V. who after- 
wards gave him Margaret, his natural daughter, in mar- 
riage. Alexander was succeeded by Cosmo I. descend- 
ed from the younger branch of the family of John Me- 
dicis, who in 1569, was declared grand duke of Flo- 
rence, by pope Pius VL which v/as ratified by the em- 
peror on condition of his holding it as a fief of the em- 
pire. 

Q. Was not this country distinguished for litera- 
ture. 

A, Yes ; during the sixteenth century it was deserv- 
edly celebrated; and scarcely equalled by any other 



212 M0DE41N HISTORY. 

country in Europe. Florence was in that century called 
the Athens of Italy. 

Q. Who succeeded Cosmo I.? 

A. His third son Francis, whose daughter Mary, mar- 
lied Henry IV. of France, from whom all the suc- 
ceeding kings liavc descended. In 1587, Francis was 
poisoned by his brother Ferdinand, a cardinal, who be- 
came tliird great duke, and transmitted that dignity to 
his son Cosmo II. Three lineal desccixlants followed, 
namely, Ferdinand II. in 1621, Cosmo III. in 1G70, 
and John Gaston in 1723, who was the seventh great 
duke ; and at his d^ath, in 1737, the male line of the 
house of Medicis became extinct. 

Q. In what manner was Tuscany disposed of? 

A. During the life of John Gaston, the infant Don 
Carlos, afterwards king of Spain, was declared his 
heir, and assumed, w^ith the consent of the duke, the 
the title of hereditary grand duke of Tuscany ; but at 
the conclusion of the war, by which he acquired the 
kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, it was stipulated by 
the treaty of Vienna, that the grand dutchy of 
Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of I^r- 
rain, in exchange for that dutchy, which was yielded 
to the kin^ of Spain after the death of Stanislaus, the 
abdicated king of loland. 

Q. Has there not a change taken place since that 
time ? 

A. Yes; in 1799, Tuscany was seized by the French, 
and by the treaty of peace in 1 801, it was converted in- 
to a king:lom \mder the appellation of Etruria, and was 
bestowed upon Louis I. tiic hereditary prince of Far- 
jna. In 1803 he was succeeded by his queen, Mary. 



SAINT MARINO. 213 



THE REPUBLIC OF SAINT MARINO. 



Q. WHERE is the Republic of Sidnt Marino ; 
' A. It is enclosed by Romagna and Urbino, and lies 
at no great distance from the Adriraic sea ; it consists 
of a very high craggy mountain, with some eminences 
rising near its foot. The town, the seat of this repub- 
lic, is seated on the summit of this lofty mountain, 
where it is generally hid among the clouds, and the 
streets are sometimes covered with snow, when it is 
clear and warm weather in the country around. 

Q. In what manner are the inhabitants supplied with 
water ? 

A. There is said to be neither spring nor rivulet in 
the whole dominion ; but the people are well provided 
with large cisterns and reservoirs of rain and snow 
water. This republic has three castles, five churches, 
and three convents ; and is supposed to contain about 
five thousand inhabitants. 

Q. State the particulars of its origin ? 

A. Saint Marino, by birth a Dalmatian, and by trade 
a mason, was employed in the reparation of Rimini, 
situated in its neighbourhood, and after he had finished 
his work, retired to this solitary mountain, as finding 
it very proper for the life of a hermit, which he led 
in the greatest rigour and austerities of religion. He 
had not been long here before he was said to have 
wrought a miracle, which joined with his extraordina- 
ry sanctity, gained him such esteem, that the princes 
of the country made liim a present of the mountain, 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 

to dispose of at his own discretion ; and his reputation 
quickly peopled it, and ^ve lise to the republic which 
calls itself after his name. 

Q. How long has this republic existed ? 

A. Nearly 1400 years, in which time all the other 
states of Italy, have frequently changed their mastere, 
and forms of government. Their whole history is 
comprised in two purchases made of a neighbouring 
prince, and in a war in which they assisted the pope 
against the lord of Rimini. Possessing a territory nei- 
ther extensive, nor convenient, Ihey have hitherto escap- 
ed the rapacity of neighbouring princes. There is but 
one road by which to ascend their mountain, and they 
have a very severe law against any one who shall enter 
the town by another path, lest a new one should be form- 
ed on the sides of it. 



THE TURKS. 

Q. WHO are the Turks? 

A. They arc of Tartarian or Scythian extraction. 
The nation to which the name of Turks has been pe- 
culiarly given, dwelt between the Black and Caspian 
seas, and became first known in the seventh century, 
when Heraclius, emperor of the East, took them into 
his service ; in which they so distinguished themselves 
by their fidelity and bravery in the conquest of Persia, 
that the Arabian and Saracen caliphs, had not only se- 
lect bodies of them for guards, but their armies were 
composed of them. Thus gradually getting the power 
iTito their hands, they set up and dethroned caliphs at 



THE TURKS. 215 

pleasure. By this strict union of the Turks with the 
Saracens, or Arabs, the former were brought to em- 
brace the Mahometan religion, so that they have now 
become intermixed, and have jointly enlarged their 
conquests ; but as the Turks became superior to the 
Saracens, they subdued them. 

Q. What was the origin of the Ottoman empire ? 

A. Genghiskan, at the head of his horse, issued out 
of Great Tartary, and made himself master of a vast 
tract of land near the Caspian sea, and even of all Per- 
sia, and Asia Minor : incited by his example and suc- 
cess, Schah Solyman, prince of the town of Nera, on 
the Caspian sea, in 1214, passed Mount Caucasus with 
fifty thousand men, and penetrated as far as the borders 
of Syria ; and although he was stopped there by the 
Genghiskan Tartars, yet in 1219, he penetrated a se- 
cond time into Asia Minor, as far as the Euphrates. 
Othman, his grand-son, made himself master of several 
countries and places in Lesser Asia, belonging to the 
Grecian empire : and having in 1300, assumed the 
title of emperor of the Othmans, called his people after 
his own name. 

Q. What conquests did he make ? 

A. Among many other towns, he took Prusa, in Bi- 
thynia, in 1326, which Orchan, his son and successor, 
made the seat of his empire. He was succeeded in 
1360, by his son Amurath, who took Ancryra, Adria- 
nople, and Philippopolis ; and in 1362, overran Ser- 
via, and invaded Macedonia and Albania. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His son Bajazet, who was successful both in Eu- 
rc'pe and Asia ; but in 1401, he was routed and taken 
prisoner by Tamerlane. Mahomet I. afterward suc- 
ceeded to the throne, whose son Amurath H. distin- 
guished himself by several important enterprises, par- 



216 MODERN HISTORY. 

ticularly in 1444, he gained a signal victory over the 
Hungarians near A'arna. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Mahomet II. the greatest of all the emperors, in 
1453, made himself master of Constantinople ; and re- 
duced the "whole Grecian empire under his dominion : 
subduing twelve kingdoms, and two hundred towns. 

Q. Who succeeded him : 

A. Bajazet II. and afterward Selim I. who enlarged, 
the Turkish empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa ; and 
Solyman I. became not less famous for his victory over 
the Hungarians, than for his body of laws. 

Q. Were the succeeding emperors equally success- 
ful ? 

A. No ; for although Mahomet IV. subdued Candia, 
and laid siege to ^^ienna, yet be met with ill success in 
Hungary: and in the reigns of Solyman II. Achmet 
II. and IVIustapha, the Hungarians and Venetians were 
so successful against the Turks, that Mustapha II. in 
1699, was compelled to conclude the peace of Carlo- 
witz. And Mahomet III. in 1718, agreed to the peace 
of Passarowitz ; but Achmet \\ by the peace of Bel- 
grade, in 1739, re-annexed Servia, a part of Wallachia, 
and Choczin to the empire. 

Q. Some time after this, war was declared by the 
Turks against Russia, what was the cause ? 

A, Catharine II. empress of Russia, soon after her 
elevation, began to make it a favourite object in her 
plan of politics, to gain a dictatorial ascendancy over 
the king and diet of Poland. This she effected, partly 
by the intrigues and persuasive bribes of her miiiisters 
at the court of Warsavr^ ; and partly by marching a 
powerful army into that kingdom. But as soon as tJKis 
measure was taken, the Porte took the alarm, and sti- 
mulated by jealousy of its northern rival, resolved to 



THE TURKS. 217 

support the liberties and independence of the Foles. 
These resolutions being formed in the divau of Con- 
stiintinople, Obreskow, the Russian resident there, 
was, according to the constant practice of the Turks 
on such occasions, committed a prisoner to the castle 
of the Seven Towers, and war was declared acainst the 
empress of Russia, in 1768, and the most vigorous pre- 
parations were made to collect the whole force of the 
empire. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The court of Russia was far from seeking a rup- 
ture with the Port, being fully employed in important 
objects nearer home ; but being unable to prevent a war, 
two armies, amounting to 150,000 men, were formed, 
at the head of the largest of which, prince Gallitzin 
crossed the Niester, and entered Moldavia, with a view 
pf becoming master of Choczin. 

Q. Did he immediately succeed? 

A. No ; the prudent measures taken by the Turkish 
vizier, frustrated all his attempts, and obliged him to 
repass the Niester. But the impatience of the Turks 
to pursue these tidvantages, and to transfer the seat of 
war into Podolia, excited a general disgust at the cau- 
tious and circumspect conduct of their leader ; in con- 
sequence of which he was removed, and Maldovani Ali 
Pacha, a man precipitate and incautious, appointed in 
his stead ; who by repeated attempts to cross the Nies- 
ter in sight of the Russian army, lost, in the short space 
of a fortnight, 24,000 of his troops ; which spread such 
general discontent through the army, that, renouncing 
all subordination, the troops retreated tumultuously to- 
wards the Danube, and no less than 40,000 men are said 
to have abandoned the standard of Mahomet, in this 
precipitate flight. 

T 



218 MODERN HISTORY. * 

Q. .What followed ? 

A. The Turkish nrovinccs of Tvloldavia and V/alla- 
chia were overrun by the Russians, and most of the 
places of strenc^th became an easy pr*. y to the conquer- 
or. Thus the campaign Avhich opened so auspiciously 
for the Ottomans, by tlie rashness and folly of their 
leader, ended in their disgrace and ruin. 

Q. What was the furtlier progress of the war ? 

A. The czarina caused a large fleet of Russian men 
of war, commanded by count Orlow, to proceed from 
the Baltic to the •Mediterranean, for the purpose of an- 
noying the Turks on their extensive coasts in the Le- 
vant. But through the unskilfulness of the Russians at 
this time in maritime affairs, they did not arrive at the 
scene of action until the spring of 1770. The l^n-ks, 
to whom the sea has ever proved a fatal element, for 
some time, had no force capable of opposing the ene- 
my ; so that Morca w as exposed to their ravages, and 
several places of strength were taken. 'J'he Creek inha- 
bitants every where joyiklly received the invaders ; but 
at length, an army of Albanians being collected, drove 
the Russians to their ships, and having recovered the 
whole country, chastised the revolt of its inhabitants, by 
the lawless vengeance of a licentious soldiery. 

Q. Which way did the Russians proceed after being 
driven from Morea ? 

A. They advanced into the I-lgcan sea, and passing 
the straits which divide the island of Scio from the 
coast of Xatolia, were met by a Turkish fleet of su- 
perior force. A furious engagement ensued on the 
5th of July, in which the Russian admiial Spiritef, 
encountered the captain Pacha, in the Sultana of ninety 
guns ; the two ships, running close together, grappled 
each other. The Russians, by throwing hand grcnados, 
set the enemy's ship on fire, which rapidly spread, and 



THE TURKS. 2 19 

soon reached the Russian ship. This dreadful spec- 
tacle suspended the action between the fleets, until both 
ships blew up. Only twenty-tour Russians were saved, 
among whom were the admiral, his son, and count 
Theodore Orlow. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Although each fleet was equally affected by this 
event, yet it infused a panic among the Turks, which 
the Russians did not partake of. During the remain- 
der of the day, the Turks maintained the action ; but on 
the approach of nii^ht, the captain Pacha, who had es- 
caped from tiic Sultana, contrary to the advice of his 
oiFicers, gave orders for each sliip to cut its cables, and 
run i.Uo a buy on the coast of Natolia, l^Jar a small towuj 
called Chisme. 

Q. Did they all comply with these orders ? 

A. No ; Ilossein Dey, who had raised himself, by his 
talents for war, to be second in command, saved his 
ship by bravely forcing his way through the enemy's 
sljips. 

Q. What became of the remainder of the Ottoman 
forces i 

A. The Russian fleet soon after blocked them up, 
and began a furious cannonade ; which being found in- 
effectual, a fire ship was sent in at midnight, on the 
7th of July, which by the intrepid behaviovu' of lieute- 
nant Dougdale, grappled a Turl;ish man of war, and the 
wind at that moment being vcjiy high, the whole Otto- 
man fleet was consumed, except one man of war and a 
few-gallies that were towed oflMjy the conquerors. T!ic 
Russians the next morning entered the harbour, bom- 
barded the town, and a castle that protected it ; when 
a shot happening to blow up the powder magazine, 
both the tQwn and castle were reduced to a heap of rub- 
bish. Thus, through the fatal misconduct of a com* 



220 MODERN HISTORY. 

niancler, there was scarcely a vcsti:^e left, in a few 
hours, of a town, a castle, and a fine fleet, which had all 
been in existence the day before. 

Q. Did the Russians pursue their advantage over 
the 'J'urks ? 

A. No ; their fleet, during the remainder of the war, 
was only employed in making descents on the Turkish 
ib!ands, whicli was done with little or no success. The 
great Kus.ian army havin;^^ passed the Danube, found 
its progress in Buli^aria stopped by the range of moun- 
tains which intersects that country, while it was conti- 
nually harassed by detachments from the Turkish 
c.imp. The expenses of the war were severely felt by 
each empire, and althou;!;h that of lUissia had gained 
the ascendancy, no beneficial consequences had been 
realized. In this state of aflairs, tlie grand seignior, 
Mustapha III. emperor of thj Turks, died, in January 
1774. 

Q. Who succeeded him ? 

A. His brother Abdulhamet : and the war was carri- 
ed on with spirit ; but a large Turkish army command- 
ed by Reis Lffendi, being disgracefully defeated by ge- 
neral Kamcnski, the Port was compelled to receive 
tjrms from the conqueror. A peace M'as signed in 
July 177 1 ; by which the Russians obtained a free na- 
vigation in all the Turkish seas, together with a passage 
throu^^h the Dardanelles: Russian consuls were like- 
wise to reside in the Turkish sea ports. 

Q. AVas a permanent peace established ? 

A. No ; the ambition of Catharine led her to meditate 
new sehemes for the subvei-sion of the Turkish empire ; 
to promote which, she made a progress from Moscow 
to the Crimea. While on her journey, she received a visit 
f:om the emperor of Ciermany, Joseph II, which, there 
was ground to suppose, had for its object the mode of 



THE TURKS. 221 

-•attacking the Turkish empire, and the manner of divid- 
ing; it when conquered. 

Q. Did the Turks remain inactive ? 

A. No; the Port took the alarm, and, determining- 
not to wait the maturation of its enemy's counsels and 
force, published a manifesto, dated August 178 7, and 
commenced hostilities agiunst the empress of Russia. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The emperor soon after led a very formidable army 
against the Turkish fastnesses on the frontiers of Hun- 
gary ; but his progress was opposed, and his measures 
frustrated, by the valour and conduct of the Turks. The 
war with Russia was chiefly maritime, and the seat of it, 
the Black sea ; but here, neither success nor glory accru- 
ed to the Turkish arms. The Russians Ijccame masters 
of Ocsakow, and in every conflict at sea were decisive- 
ly su[>crior. 

Q. Was this war viewed with indifference by the 
other great powers of Kurope ? 

A. No ; the subjugation of the Turkish empire, and 
th.e vast increase of power which Russia would accjuire 
by p^ossessing the niost valuable, because tlie most com- 
mercial, part of it, were considered as revolutions in 
which the other powers of Europe were deeply interested. 
In consequence of which a close alliance was formed be- 
tween Great Britain and Prussia, havhig for its chief ob- 
ject, the rescuing of the Turks from the destruction which 
hung over them, by restoring peace to that pai-t of Eu- 
rope. The losses and disgraces which the emperor sus- 
tained, rendered him anxious to terminate the war ; and 
tlie empress of Russia, ihrou^^^h the mediation of the Bri- 
tis'a court, at length acceded to terms of peace, by the 
conditions of whicli very important t(jwns and districts 
were added to her dominions, which her anns had pre- 
viously obtained. 

T 2 



:222 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. As the reliijion of the Turks, Mahometanism, is chf- 
ferent from that of which you have before spoken, give 
mc some account of the founder? 

A. Mdhomet, or more properly Mohammed, was 
born m 569. He sprang fi*om the tribe of Koraish and the 
family of Ilashem ; liis grandfather, uncles, and lineal 
ancestors were pruices ; his fiimily possessed by heredi- 
tary right, the custody of the Caaba at Mecca, which 
r.-as a phice of worship resorted to by the Arabians, long 
befoix* the time of Mahomet. 

Q. Proceed with his character ? 

A Notv/ithstanding the respectability of his descent, 
being left an orphan when very young, and being in low 
circ'imstmc'js. he was recommended to Khadijah or Ca- 
digaa noble and rich widow, for her factor, he having' 
been bred to mciThanclize ; in which capacity he acquit- 
ted himself so well, that he gained the affections of his 
Riistress, and by marryhig her, became as rich a mer- 
chant as any in Mecca. J lis natural strength of mind 
and intrepidity of spirit, prompteil him to form great 
designs when h-s fortunes improved, although it is said 
he was so illiterate as not to be capable of reading or 
wriling. 

Q. Did not his want of learning prove a great impedi- 
ment to him Sn effecting his designs? 

A. No ; it strongly promoted them : for this artful A- 
rab, who must unijuestlonably have merely aftVcted this 
g-'oss ignorance ; insisted tlixit tiie writings which he pro- 
duced as revelations from (Jod, were cleared of all impu- 
tation of being forgeries : for such elegance of style, and 
excellence of doctrine, could not originate from a man 
alike incapable of writing or reading. His followers, 
therefore, instead of being ashamed of their master's ig- 
norance, gloried in it, as an evident proof of his diviue 



THE TURKS. 225 

missten, and scrupled not to call him, as he is styled in 
the Koran itself, the illiterate prophet. 

Q. What was the state of the world at that time ? 

A. The purity and simplicity of the doctrines of Christ, 
had been contaminated and perverted by the artful wiles 
of priestcraft ; which caused the grossest impositions to 
be i)ractised upon an ignorant laity. Pomp, splendour, 
and unintelligible worship, were substituted for the de- 
votion of the heart ; while the prayers offered up to ima- 
ginary and fictitious saints, had effaced all just notions 
of the attributes of the deity. 

Q. Did Mohammed acq\iaint himself with the state 
of rcli -ion at that time ? 

o 

A. Yes ; he had made two journeys into Syria, where 
he had informed himself of the principles of Judaism, 
and the jari'on which bore the name of Christianity. It 
is probable that his mind was naturally prone to religious 
enthusiasm, and that he was a devotee before he became 
:\n i:apostor. His first design seems to have extend- 
ed no farther than to bring the wild, intractable, and ar- 
dent Arabs to acknowlcdi^c one Cod, and one king, but 
he afterwards went much greater lengths. 

Q. What was his creed ? 

A. He declared there was one God, who created the 
world, and all tilings in it ; that he had sent various pro- 
phets into the world to teach his will to mankind ; 
among whom Moses and Jesus were the most eminent j 
but that the endeavours of these had proved ineffectual, 
' and that God had therefore now sent his last and great- 
est prophet, with a commission more ample than what 
Moses or Christ had been intrusted with. He had 
commanded him not only to publish his laws, but to sub- 
due those, who were unwilling to believe or obey them ; 
and for this end, to establish a kingdom upon earth which 
should propagate the divine lav/ throughout all the 



224 MODERN HISTORY. 

world : that God had designed utter riiin and destruction 
to those uho refused to subn^it to him ; but to his faith- 
ful followers, had t^iven tike spoils and possessions of all 
the earth as a reward in this life, and had provided them 
hereafter a paradise of all sensual enjoyments. These, 
■with the prohibition from drinking strong li(|uors, and the 
doctrine of predestination, were the principal articles of 
his creed. 
. Q. What was the success of his doctrine ? 

A. It was implicitly embraced by many of his cour- 
trymen ; but the inhabitants of Mecca, who were fami- 
liar with the person of Mahomet, were sufficiently con- 
vinced of tlie deception, and the more enli;_jhtcned of 
them entered into a design of cutting him off; but get- 
thig notice of their intention, he fled to Medina, where 
the fame of his miracles and doctrine, which as is usual 
vas greatest at a distance, gained him a cordial reception. 
From tliis (light, wliich took place in the 622d year of 
Christ, and 10th of Mahomet's ministry, his followers 
compute their time, and the era is called the Hegira. 
By the assistance of the inhabitants of Medina, and 
others whom Kia insinuation and address daily attached 
to him, he brougiit over all his countrymen to a belief, 
or at least to an acquiescence, in his doctrine. The con- 
ta.2,ioii spread, and his principles were received over A- 
rabi'i, Syria, Egypt, and Persia. ^ 



AMERICA. 225 



AMERICA. 



Q WHO first discovered America? 
A. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, TTh# 
had been early trained to a sea-fan lij^^ life ; and having 
a<:quired every branch of knowledge connected with 
that profession, was ne less distinguiahed by his skill 
and abilities, than for his intrepid and persevering spirit. 
Q. In what manner did he discover it ? 
A. When about forty years of age, he formed the 
great idea of reaching the East Indies by sailing west- 
ward ; but, as his fortune was very small, and the at- 
tempt required very effectual patronage, desirous that 
his native country should profit by his success, he laid 
his plcui before the senate of Genoa ; but the scheme ap- 
pearing chimerical, it was rejected. lie tlicn repidred 
to the court of Portugal, but was equally unsuccessful 
in his application. 

Q. To whom did he next apply ? 
A. To Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of 
Arragon and Castile, where at length Isabella declared 
herself his patroness, while her husband I'erdinand, 
declining to partake as an adventurer in the voyage, 
only gave it the sanction of his name. Thus the supe- 
rior genius of a woman, effected the discovery of one 
lialf the globe. 

Q. AVhen did he enter upon his voyage ? 
A. He set sail on the Gd of August 1492, from port 
Fidos, in the province of Andalusia j and after pro- 



226 MODERN HISTORY. 

cecding to the Canary ishinds, he immediately left 
the usual track oi' navi;c;ation, holding his course due 
west, and strct'ihed into unfrequented seas. In this 
course he continued for t^vo months, without falling in 
with any lands ; which occasioned a spirit of discon- 
tent and mutiny among his seamen, that it was not in 
his power wholly to suppress. 

Q. What followed ? 

A lie was reduced to the necessity of entering into 
m solemn engagement to abandon the enterprise, and 
return hom^-, if land did rw>t appear in three days. liut 
such unqucstionahle indications of land had appeared as 
rendered this stipulation in my way hazardous. T locks 
of land birds, \shich were incapable of stretching far 
out to soa, were seen ; bruichcs of trees, and canes 
newly cut were taken up, with a piece of carved limber ; 
and to conHrm this hope, the ships were coming Into 
soundings. At. !c:.'j^h ihc appearance of land changed 
thtar despondency, into the most exulting rapture. 

Q. What was it tlicy first discovered? 

A. An ii.land, abounding with inliabitants, who ap- 
peared in all the simplicity of nature, their manners 
kind, gentle, and \msuspccling. Columbus named it 
San Salvador : it is one of the cluster which beai's the 
general name of Bahamas; and it is only four degiecs 
to the south of the island (jf Comora, one of the Canaries 
from which he took his depaitinc. 

Q. Which way did he direct his course from San 
Salvador ? 

A. lie proceeded to the south, and saw three other 
islands, v.hich he named St. Mary of the conception, 
P'erdinandina, and Isr.bella. At length he arrived at a 
large island, which he learned from some of the natives 
©f San Salvador, w horn he had taken v ith him, was called 



AMERICA. 227 

Cuba, but he gave it the name of Juanna. He next 
proceeded to an iilund ^-rhich he called Kspagniola, in 
honour of the kingdom by Avhich he was employed, 
and it still bears the name of llispunola. He built a 
fort here, and formed a small settlement. He then 
returned home, having on board some of tlie natives 
^vhom he had taken from the different islands : steer- 
ing a move southern course, he fell in with some of 
the Caribbec islands, and arrived at the port of Palos on 
the !5th of March 1493. 

Q. Was he not received by the inhal)itants with the 
highest marks of satisfaction ? 

A. Yes ; when the prosperous issue of his voyage 
was known ; when ihcy beheld the strange people, 
the unknoNvn animals, and singular productions, brought 
from the countries which had been discovered ; the 
effusion of joy was general and unbounded. The bells 
were run;^, the cannon fired. Columbus was received 
at landing with royal honours, and all the people in 
solemn procession, accompanied him and his crew to 
the church, where they returned thanks to Heaven, 
which had so wonderfully conducted, and crowned with 
surcess, a voyage of greater length, and of more im- 
portimcc, than had been attempted in any former age. 
He was afterwards received at court by I'erdinand luid 
Isabella, with the highest marks of respect ; and letters 
patent were issued by them, coiifinning to him iujd to 
his heirs, all the privileges contained in a capitulation 
which had been executed before his departure, and his 
family was ennobled. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Ferdinand, desirous of securing what he had 
before been unwilling to venture for the obtaining, 
applied to the pope Alexander VI. who then filled the 
papal chair, to be invested with a right in these new 



228 MODERN HISTORY. 

discovered countries, as well as all future discoveries hi 
that direction ; but in order that there should be some 
appearance of religion in the measure, he founded his 
plea upon a desire for converting the savage natives to 
the Romish faith. 

Q. What was the pope's reply ? 

A. Being a native of Arragon, and willing to con- 
ciliate the favour of Ferdinand, he readily granted a re- 
quest, which, at no expense or risk, tended to extend 
the consequence and authority of the papacy. He 
therefore bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella, all the 
countries inhabited by infidels which they had dis- 
covered, or should discover ; but as it was necessary to 
prevent this grant from interfering with one not long 
before made to the crown of Portugal, he appointed 
that a line supposed to be drawn from pole to pole, 100 
leagues to the westward of the Azores, should serve as 
a limit between them. 

Q. When did Columbus make a second voyage ? 

A. He set sail from the port of Cadiz on the 25th of 
September, 1493 ; and when he arrived at Espagniola, 
had the affliction to find, that all the Spaniards whom 
he had left there, amounting to thirty-six in number, 
had been put to death by the natives, in revenge for the 
insultfl and outrages which they had committed upon 
them. 

Q. What was the further conduct of Columbus ? 

A. After tracing the plan of a town, near a spacious 
bay, which he gave the name of Isabella ; and appoint- 
ing his brother, Don Diego, to preside as deputy gover- 
nor in his absence ; he sailed on the 24th of April, 1494, 
with one ship and two small barks, to make farther dis- 
coveries. In this voyage, he was employed five months, 
and fell in with many small islands, on the coast of Cu- 



AMERICA. 229 

ua, but with nothing of any importance; except the 
island of Jamaica. 

Q. Did Columhiis continue upon amicable terms 
with the natives. 

A. No ; soon after his return to Hispaniola, he re- 
solved to make war upon them. The natives having 
jexperienced every lawless act of violence from their 
invaders, were rendered extremely inveterate, and 
thirsted for revenge ; a disposition which appears to 
have been foreign to their natures. Having collected 
his full force, he attacked them by night, while they 
were assembled in a wide plain, and obtained a most 
decisive victory, without the loss of any of his men. 

Q. In what manner did he obtain such a signal vic- 
tor)' ? 

A. Beside the effect of cannon and fire arms, the 
noise of which was appalling, and their effect against a 
numerous body pf Indians, closely drawn together, in 
the highest degree destructive, Columbus had brought 
over with him a small body of cavalry. The Indians 
who had never before seen such creatures, imagined 
the Spanish horses to be rational beings, and that each, 
with its rider, formed but one animal : they were asto- 
nished at tlieir speed, and considered their impetuosity 
and strength as irresistible. 

Q. Had not the affrighted Indians another formidable 
enemy which terrified and destroyed them ? 

A. Yes ; a great number of the largest and fiercest 
species of dogs which were then bred in Europe, had 
been brought hither, which, set on by their masters, 
rushed upon the Indians with the fierceness of savage 
beasts, and where ever they came, the miserable na- 
tives threw down their* weapons, without attempting 
resistance, and fled with all the speed which terror could 
excite. 

U 



230 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. What was the conduct of the Spaniards to the na- 
tives v/ho survived this battle ? 

A. Those who were made prisoners, were indiscri- 
minately consigned to slavery, and such as preserved 
their freedom, fled into the mountains and inaccessible 
parts of the island, which not yielding them sufficient 
means of subsistence, they were compelled to obtain 
a portion of food from their cruel pursuers, by procure 
ing gold dust, in order to support life ; a tribute being 
imposed upon them which was rigorously exacted. 
These wretched remains of a free people, thus driven 
from fruitfulness and amenity ; compelled to labour for 
the support of life ; a prey to despondency which the 
recollection of their former happiness shai'pencd, and 
which their hopeless situation rendered insupportvible, 
died in gicc.t numbers, the innocent victims of Euro- 
pean avarice. 

Q. Did Columbus return to Spain ? 
A. Yes, and found that his enemies had been active 
and successful in impressing Ferdinand and Isabella 
with unfavourable sentiments of his conduct ; but he so 
far recovered his credit, that a squadron of six ships was 
fitted out, with which he proceeded on a third voyage, 
in May 1498. 

Q. What was his success ? 
. A. Taking a more southern course, he discovered 
the island of Trinidad, on the coast of Guana, near the 
tSSouth of the great river Oronoko. The swell occa-? 
sioned by this vast river pouring its waters into the 
ocean was so great, as to expose the ships to extreme 
danger ; but after long combating the currents and tre- 
mendous waves, with doubtful success, he conducted 
his squadron safely through a narrow strait, which se- 
parates that island from the continent ; this he called 
Bocca del DragO; the dragon's mouth. 



AMERICA. 231 

Q. Vvhat conclusion did Columbus draw from the 
discovery of this river ? 

A. That such a vast body of water must flow through 
a country of immense extent, and tliat he was now ar- 
rived at that continent, which it had long been the ob- 
ject of his wishes to discover. Full of this idea, he 
'stood to the west along the coast of those provinces now 
known by the names of Paria and Comana. He land- 
ed in several places, and had some intercourse with the 
natives, who resembled those of Hispaniola in their ap- 
pearance and manner of life. Thus, says Dr. Robert- 
'son, Columbus had not only the glory of discovering to 
mankind the existence of a new M^orld, but made con- 
siderable progress toward a perfect knowledge of it, 
and v/as the first man who conducted the Spaniards to 
that vaat continent which, has been the chief seat of 
their empire^ and the source of their treasures in that 
quarter of the globe. 

Q. Which M'ay did Columbus after\yards direct his 
course ? 

A. To Hispaniola ; and on quitting the continental 
coast, fell in with the small island of Cubagua, and 
the larger one called Margarita, not far from it. 
These afterwards became remarkable for their pearl 
jfishery. 

Q. Did the enemies of Columbus continue to injure 
him at the court of Spain ? 

A. Yes ; they wholly destroyed his credit with the 
king and queen, and Francis de Bovadilla, was ap- 
pointed to repair to Hispaniola, with full powers to 
inquire into his conduct. This commission Bovadilla 
exercised in the most arbitrary and severe manner ; 
for, without having recourse even to the form of a judi- 
cial inquiry, he divested Columbus of all authority ; 
and putting him m chains, sent him a prisoner to 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

Spain. But the authority thus exercised was not lon^. 
held ; Bovadilla was superseded, and the govern- 
ment given to Ovando, who, however, proved in tlic 
sequel to be but little less inimical to Columbus. 

Q. Was this violent conduct approved by Ferdinand 
and Isabella ? 

A. No; they endeavoured by outward marks of at- 
tention and respect, to wipe off the ignominy which had 
been cast upon the discoverer of America ; but it is 
prob:ible he v/oulcl never have prevailed upon them to as- 
sist him in the undcrtaldng a fourth voyage, had it not 
been for the discovery made by the Portuguese of sail- 
ing to the East Indies, by doubling the Cape of Good- 
Hope ; but as it had ever been his firm belief that the 
country which he had discovered was not far from the 
East Indies, and that there was a more direct way thi- 
tlier by a I'O'Jte T,'hich i'.e f>J.i'wCl. out, he prevailed upon 
his noble patrons to assist him in ascertalnhig this im« 
portant point. 

Q. When did he set sail ? 

A. On the ninth of May 1502, but without being in- 
vested v.i-h any authority in the country wliich he had' 
discovered. When he arrived at Hispitniola, he found 
Ovando little inclined to afford him assistiince ; he 
thercfoie soon quitted the island, and steering to- 
wards the continent, explored all the coast from Cape 
Gi\.cias^ Dies southward, until lie arrived at a harbour, 
v^hich on accouiit of its beauty and security he called 
Porto Bello. While thus coasting he went ashore at 
several places, and sometimes proceeded up the country, 
but did not penetrate so far as to cross the Isthmus 
v/hich separates the AthuUic from the Pacific ocean. 
Q. Was it not bis design to have settled a colony to 
the west of Porto Bello ? 

A. Yes ; but the scheme was so much disrelished 



MEXICO. 233 

by his people that he could not effect it, and he ^vas 
therefore deprived of the honour of planting the first 
colony on the continent of America. He afterwards 
suffered many hardships, chiefly from the neglect of 
Ovando, and soon after his return to Spain, his gre:it 
patroness Isabella, queen of Castile, died ; but this most 
able navigator did not long survive her, he dying at 
Valladolid, on the twentieth of May 1506, in the fifty- 
ninth year of his age. 



f MEXICO. 

Q. WERE there not other adventurers beside 
Columbus, who early ventured into those unfrequented 
seas ? 

A. Yes; in 1499, some merchants of Seville, who 
obtained the royal license for the undertaking, entered 
into a partnership with Olonso Ojeda, who had accom- 
panied Columbus on his second voyage, to undertake 
discoveries, and traffic with the natives, in that part of 
the southern continent, which Columbus had coasted, 
and in some parts had landed upon. The second in com- 
mand was Americus Vespucius (Amerigo Vespucci, 
according to Dr. Robertson) a Florentine of good abi- 
lities and considerable maritime knowledge ; although 
entirely inexperienced in the new navigation. They 
proceeded to the coast of Paria, and ssdled westward 
to Cape de Vela. 

Q. What was the result of this voyage ? 

A. Tittle advantage was derived to the adventurers, 

U2 



23 i MODERN HISTORY. 

and no new countries traced; but Americus Vespucius 
drew up a narrative of the voyage in so entertaining a 
manner, that the novelty of the subject caused it to be 
universally read : new productions of nature, new ani- 
iTkals, and a new race of men were broue;;ht into notice. 
His assuming consequence, was so artfully managed, 
that the world was led to consider him as the discoverer 
of that continent, a part of which he had described : 
thus was the unquestionable right of Columbus super- 
seded, by the artful unfounded pretensions of Ameri- 
cus Vespucius ; and although utterly unmerited, pro- 
cured him immortality, by causing the whole conti- 
nent, extending through all climates, and ovci- more 
th:ui a J.iindr^d degi-ces of latitude, to obtain the name of 
America. 

Q. \Vhat followed ? 

A. Ojeda and Americus \^espucius, soon after made 
a second voyage, in which they proceeded more to the 
westward ; but that proved liku' the former, unpro- 
tilable ; whil-j Olonso Xegno, another navigator, train- 
ed under Columbus ; about the same time, made a very 
lucrative voyage to the co.'.st of Paria. 

Q. Did Ojeda become discouraged by these two un- 
profitalJc voya.^i'.'S ? 

A. No ; having, been appointed, by Ferdinand, go- 
vernor of the continental country, from Cape Gracias a 
Dios, to Cape Vela, he entered on a third voyage. 
Diego de Nicuessa, who had acquired a large fortune at 
Tlispaniola, obtained at the same time, the appointment 
of governor of all the country, from Cape de Vela to 
the gulf of Darien. Ojeda, upon his arrival, took pos- 
session of the country in the most hostile manner. 

Q. Did the natives make no resistance ? 

A. Yes ; more than seventy of Ojeda's followers were 
slain in one attack ; and the reception which Nicuessa 



i 



MEXICO. 235 

Viiet with, was equally unfavourable. At length a fee- 
ble settlement was formed at Santa Maria, near the 
gulf of Darien, under the command of \'asco Nugnes 
de Balboa. 

O. A\'hat was his conduct to the natives ? 

A. He treated them with much more kindness and 
liberality than the Spaniards had generally done ; and 
he gained his recompense ; for they informed him of a 
rich country to the south-east, and a vast body of water 
beyond it. 

Q. When did Balboa set out in search of this coun- 
try ? 

A. In 15 13, attended by one hundped and ninety 
men, and twelve Indians who served as guides. With 
immense labour and perseverance, he travelled over 
tiie mountains, thickly covered with wood, for twenty- 
five days, when he arrived in sight of a mountain, which 
the Indians, who were his guides, assured him would, 
on its summit, bring to view a great sea. Thus stimu- 
lated, all dit^iculties were surmounted, and the whole 
party had ascended nearly to the top, when BcUboa call- 
ed to halt, and proceeding alone to the utmost height, 
was the first European who beheld that expansive body 
of water, now named the Pacific Ocean, lie had no 
sooner beheld the rapturous sight, than he fell on his 
knees, and lifthig up his hands and eyes to Heaven, he 
returned thanks to God, who had conducted him to a 
discovery so beneficial to his country, and so honourable 
to himself. These stronij; sensations being gratified, he 
descended to tiie shore, and took possession of the vast 
deep, in the name of the king his master. The spot 
on which this discovery was thus made, is now called 
the gulf of St. Michael. 

Q. In what mariner did he proceed ? 



23G MODERN HISTORY. 

A. After having ascertained the existence of the great 
Pacific ocean, and reached the confines of the exten- 
sive country, afterward known by the name of Peru, he 
despatched an account of these important acquisitions to 
Spain, with a requisition of a thousand men, to enable 
him to accomphsh the conquest of the country. 

Q. Did Ferdinand attend to the remonstrance of Bal- 
boa? 

A. Yes ; transported with the prospect of opening; 
a commerce wish the East, by a course westward 
of the line of dcmarkation, drawn by pope Alex- 
ander VL and by that means procuring a considerable 
portion of that lucrative trade, which the Portuguese at 
that time monopolized, he determined to prosecute 
the measure pointed out by Balboa, but to deprive him 
of the merited glory and wealth which the execution of 
such a grand dcsir;n would confer on the conductor. 
Thus did ingratitude no less debase the cabinet, than 
cruelty the progress of the conquest. 

Q. Who was chosen to supersede Balboa ? 

A. Pedrarias Davila was appointed [i^ovcrnor of Da- 
rien, and sent out with fifteen ships and twelve hundred 
men ; besides v.hich fifteen hundred persons eagerly 
presented themselves as volunteers. But upon their 
arrival, the rainy season set in, which spread disease 
among the unseasoned Europeans, while a great scar- 
city of provisions deprived them of necessary relief; in 
consequence of which, six hundred persons perished in 
the course of a month. 

Q. Did those who survived th»; influence of the cli- 
mate, conduct themselves respectfully to the natives ? 

A. No ; they penetrated into the country in quest of 
gold, and disduming the example of mildness and con- 
ciliation which Bali)oa had set them, they treated the 
natives with the utmost haugliliness and severity. 



MEXICO. 237 

Their rapacity and cruelty receiving no check from 
the authority of the governor, all the country for a con- 
siderable extent was desolated. At lenL;,th, the repre- 
sentations and remonstrances Vvhich Ualboa sent to 
Spain, had such influence upon Ferdinand., that he was 
appointed lieutenant-governor of the countries upon the 
south sea, \A ith very extensive powers, and Pedrarias 
was enjoined to support him. 

Q. Did a reconciliation take place between them ? 

A. Yes, by the interposition of Quevels, bishop of 
Darien ; but in 1517, through the jealousy of Pedrarias, 
Balboa was seized, and brought to trial upcn charges 
of disafiection to the king, and evil designs against the 
governor ; for which lie received sentence, and was exe- 
cuted. 

Q. Did Pedrarias, notwithstanding his misconduct, 
continue himself in power ? 

A. Yes, chiefly from the strof.g suppcit which he 
received from the bishop of 13urgos; and he soon after 
obtained pern.ission to remove the colony from Santa 
Mai'ia, to Panama, on the opposite side of the isthmus. 

Q. Were there any other expeditions undertaken 
about this time ? 

A. Yes ; early in 15 17, a voyage to the continent was 
undertaken, from the island of Cuba, by Francisco Her- 
mundes Cordova ; he landed on the peninsula of Yuca- 
tan, where a casique received him with apparent kind- 
;iess; but some Indians who lay in ambush rushed 
upon his party ; they were, however, intimidated by 
tlie fu*e-arms and cross-bows of the Spaniards and soon 
fled. Cordova, on quitting the country, took with him 
two of the natives, likewise t)ie ornaments of a small 
temple. The natives of Yucatan were the first In- 
dians who were seen with clothing ; they wore cot- 
ton garments. 



238 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. Which way difl Cordova proceed ? 

A. To CampcLichy, on the same peninsula ; where 
tlie natives attacked him with great fury, killed forty- 
seven Spaniards, and Cordova himself was desperotely 
wounded. This discomfiture occasioned the ships to 
return to Cuba ; and soon after their arrival, Cordova 
died of his wounds. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Four sliips were fitted out by Velasquez, under 
the command of Juan de Grijalva: they sailed from 
the port of St. Jago de Cuba in April, 15 18. The first 
land they reached was the island of Cozumel, on the 
eastern coast of Yucatan, but without landing thty pro- 
ceeded to Potonchan, on the opposite side of the penin- 
sula ; where they landed for the purpose of avenging 
on the natives, the death of their countrymen. 

Q. What was the conduct of the Indiajas ? 

A. They fotight with great fury, and notwithstand- 
ing the whole Spanish force was disembarked, the vic- 
tory was gained with much difficulty, and they were 
compelled to return to their ships. In proceeding to 
the westward, they were struck with amazement at the 
beauty of the country, and plainly perceived houses 
built with stone, white and lofty. In the warmth of 
their admiration, they conceived these to be cities 
adorned with towers and pinnacles ; and one of the sol- 
diers happening to remark that the country resembled 
Spain in its appearance, Grijalva gave it the name of 
Mew Spain, amidst universal applause. 

Q. Where did they next land ? 

A. To the west of Tabasco, in the province now nam- 
ed Guaxaca. The people there received them with a 
degree of homage rising to adoration ; and they obtained 
in six days, golden ornaments of curious workmanship, 
to the value of fifteen thousand pesos, for which they bar- 



MEXICO. 239 

tcred European toys of small value. The natives in- 
formed them by signs, that they were subjects of a great 
king, named Montezuma, whose dominions extended 
very far. After touching at some other places along 
the coast, he returned to Cuba,, having been about six 
months on his voyage. 
Q. What followed ? 

A. The information brought by Grijalva, of the rich 
and extensive kingdom which bore the name of Mexi- 
co, rendered Velasquez eager to undertake important 
discoveries in that direction ; to effect which, he cm- 
ployed a considerable part of his fortune. The impor- 
tance of his enterprise, however, did not induce him to 
conduct it in person ; but as in the former expedition, 
committed it to another. Ferdinando Cortes, a native of 
Estremadura, was made choice of. 
Q. What was his character ? 

A. He united to the hardy and inflexible soldier, a dis- 
position incapable of despondency, and a mind ever 
fruitful in expedients ; he possessed such engaging 
manners, as gained him the esteem of all, while he 
maintained, without appearing to seek it, a dignified 
ascendancy ; but his penetration and address enabled 
him to discern the views and dispositions of others, 
while, with apparent frankness, he cautiously conceal- 
ed his own. 

Q. When did he set out on his voyage ? 
A. On the 1 8th of November, 1518, and proceeded to 
Trinidad, a small settlement on the same island ; but 
Velasquez had, by this time, become so jealous of Cor- 
tes, that he sent orders to deprive him of his commis- 
sion ; he had however so entirely gained tlie attach- 
ment of the officers, that it was not thought proper to 
enforce the order. From Trinidad he proceeded to 



240 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Havanna, whither \'clasc]uez forwarded his mandate, 
but the authority was there openly opposed. 

Q. ^yhixi force had Cortes ? 

A. lie had eleven vessels, the larg-est of which was 
100 tons, and called the Admiral; seven of the others 
were small open barks. On board of the whole were 
617 men, of which 508 were soldiers, 109 seamen and 
artificers. Only 13 of the soldiers were armed with 
muskets ; 32 were cross-bow men, and the rest had 
swords and spears. There were likewise 15 horses, 
10 field-pieces, and 4 falconets, or small pieces of artil- 
lery. 

Q. What was the further conduct of Cortes ? 

A. He proceeded to the island of Cozumel, and from 
thence to the river of Tabasco, where the natives shew- 
ed great animosity ; but beint^ soon subdued they sued 
for peace, were m«ide to acknowledjj^e the king of Cas- 
tile for their sovereicrn, and fumished a supply of provi- 
sions, some cotton garments, gold, and 20 female 
slaves. 

Q. What followed? 

A. Proceeding westward to ?.t. Juan de Ulloa, a ca- 
noe approached Cortes's ship, in which were two per- 
sons of distinction, who addressed him with great re- 
spect ; but the language in which they spoke was entirely 
unknown, until one of the female slaves, afterwards 
named Dorina Marina, understanding it, explained it 
hi the Yucatan dialect. It appeared they were deput- 
ed from Tcutilc and Pilpatoc, the two officers entrusted 
with the government of the province by the great mo- 
narch IMontezuma. and were sent to inquire what w^ere 
his intentions in visiting the coast. The two govern- 
ors came the next day, to enforce the same inquiry. 

Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 



MEXICO. 241 

A. He treated them with great respect, but required to 
be introduced to Montezuma. At this interview, the 
Mexicans presented Cortes Avith fine cotton cloth, 
plumes of variously coloured feathers, with ornaments 
of gold and silver to a considerable value; the work- 
manship of which appeared as curious as the materials 
were rich ; and during the interview some painters in 
the train of the Mexican chiefs, were employed in deli- 
neating, upon white cotton cloths, figures of the ships, 
horses, artillery, soldiers, and every other striking nov- 
elty. 

Q. Was advice forwarded to Montezuma ? 

A. Yes; but the emperor absolutely declined receiv- 
ing a visit in his capital, and requested that the Spani- 
ards should immediately quit his coast ; to qualify the 
refusal, however, a train of an hundred Indians, laden 
with presents from Montez.uma, were introduced to 

Cortes. 

Q. What was the nature of these presents ? 

A. Their magnificence astonished the Spaniards : the 
manufactures of cotton were of a texture so fine as to 
resemble silk ; and pictures formed by various feathers, 
so skilfully and elegantly arranged as to produce the 
most pleasing effect, and bear a competition with the 
works of the pencil in Europe. To these pieces of cu- 
rious workmanship, were added two large round plates, 
the one formed of massive gold, designed to represent 
the sun, the other of silver emblematical of the moon. 

Q. Did Cortes submit to the requisition of Montezu- 
^ma, by retiring from his coasts ? 

A. No ; he replied in a resolute tone, that he must be 
introduced to the prince, otherwise he should incur 
the anger of his sovereign, who had sent him thither for 
that purpose. ^-.i,,,^ 



242 MODERN HISTORY. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. More presents of i^rcater value were sent, accom- 
panied with a positive requisition that the Spaniards 
should immediately quit the country. Cortes employ- 
ed the interval of negocialion in constructing a fortifi- 
ed town on the coast, which he called Villa Rica de la 
vera Cruz, and of gaining a knowledge of the state 
of the country and of its inhabitants ; and at length 
peremptorily refused to quit the country, and persist- 
ed in demanding an audience of the emperor. The 
Mexicans, astonished at his boldness, withdrew, and 
all intercourse from that time ceased. 

Q. What was the state of the Mexican empire when 
the Spaniards invaded it ? 

A. It had arisen to a degree of splendour which few 
countries had ever attained to in so short a time. Ac- 
cording to the tradition of the natives, it had only sub- 
sisted 130 years, in which time all the dependant pro- 
vinces in the country had been subdued, and J^rought 
under one sovereign, whose dominions extended 500 
leagues from E. to W. and 200 from N. to S. 

Q. In what manner did Cortes afterwards proceed ? 

A. As he acted under no legal authority, the appoint- 
ment which he had received from the governor of Cu- 
ba having been revoked, he assembled the principal 
persons in his army, from among whom a certain num- 
ber were chosen, who were to form a government 
\mder the authority of the king of Spain, without ac- 
knowledging any dependancc on Cuba. To the govern- 
ment so formed, Cortes resigned his commission ; and 
he was unanimously chosen by it, chief justice of the 
colony, and captain general of the army, under the au- 
thority of the king's name, until the royal pleasure 
should bo further known. 



MEXICO. 245 

Q. What was the first step taken by Cortes after re- 
ceiving his new appointments ? 

A. He formed an alliance with the two casiques of 
Zempoalla, and Quiabishm in that neighbourhood, who 
being impatient of tlie yoke imposed on them by Mon- 
tezuma, had l)een prevailed upon to assist the Spanuuds 
against the Mexican power : and the Totonaqucs, a 
fierce people inhabiting the mountainous part of the 
countiy, submitted themselves to the crown of Cas- 
tile. 

Q. Did not Cortes inform Ferdinand of this new 

establishment ? 

A. Yes ; he pci-suadcd the newly appointed magis- 
trates to address a letter to the king of Spain, for the 
purpose of justifying their own conduct in establishing 
an independent colony, and rcnovmcing the authority of 
the governor of Cuba. He then began his march from 
Zempoalla on the 16th of August 1519. On entering 
the country of the Tlascalans, a fierce and warlike 
people, he was attacked by a large body of troops, who 
rushed upon the Spaniards w ith great impetuosity, but 
were not able to make any impression, although they 
wounded some of the Sp;;iuards and killed two horses. 
In a second attack he so cfiectuully defeated them, that 
they acknowledged themselves vassals to the crown of 
Castile, and furnished him with GOOOof their best war- 
riors, who acted tis auxiliary troops in their operations 
against the Mexicans, towards v horn they retained the 
most deadly antipathy. 

Q. In what manner did Cortes proceed? 
A. On the fifteehth of October 1519, he directed his 
force toward the city of Cholula, which was held by all 
the people cf Mexico as a place of peculiar sanctity, 
and the favourite residence of their imaginary gods ; 
pilgrimages were made thither from all parts ; and a 



244 MODERN HISTORY. 

a greater numbtr of human victims r/ ere offered up in 
its principal tcniplc than in that of ^Mexico. 

Q. Did not the Cholulans concert a plot, to attack the 
Spaniards by sm'prise, and cut them off? 

A. Yes; but the design was timely discovered, 
ffhieny by the iiUcllijence which Marina found mean* 
to obtain ; and Cortes determined to strike terror into 
the Mexicans, by the severe vengeance which he 
should take upon this occasion. He took measures to 
draw together the chief magistrates and leading men 
to his camp, when a furious onset v/as made on the un- 
i.uspec:ing uud secure inh..bitants, who, struck with ter- 
ror, and incapable of resistance, fell by an indiscriminate 
and merciless slaughter. He then ket at liberty the 
magistrates wham he had in his possession, informed 
tliem of the knowledge which he had of the plot, de- 
clared his resentment fully sati>iried, and that he was 
disposed to render them his friendship and protection. 
The Indians no less astonished than terrified, conclud- 
ed that the Spaniards possessed the power of penetrat- 
jiig into the secret thoughts and most hidden designs of 
men. 

Q. What followed?' 

A. Cortes proceeded without opposition to the city 
of Mexico, which was only twenty leagues from Cho- 
lula. Upon approac;hing it, a large number of persons 
of superior rank came forth from the city, and ap- 
proached him in the most respectful manner ; these 
were the harbingers of the emperor's approach, who 
soon after appeared carried in state. Cortes advanced 
to receive him in the most respectful manner. As 
the Spaniards proceeded to the quarters assigned them,, 
they frequently heard the crowd pronounce Teulcs, 
Divinities. In the evening Montezuma paid a visit to 
the Spanish chief, and brought presents of the most 



MEXICO. 245 

costly kind. As these outward incUcations of regard 
could only be considered as dictated by fear, e^ ery pre- 
caution was taken to guard against surprise; to 
confirm suspicion, Cortes had received advice from 
Villa Rica, that Qualpopoca, a INIexican general, 
had fallen upon a party of revolted Indians, to support 
v.'hom, F.scalantc, who had been left to command the 
garrison, had marched out, and an engagement had 
taken place, in which, although the Mexicans were 
defeated, th.e governor and seven of his men had been 
mortally wounded, andji Spaniard taken prisoner, whose 
head they cut off, and carried in triumph throu-h the 
districts, to convince the people that the invaders were 
not immortal. 

Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 
A. Sensible of the imminent danger to which he was 
exposed, he determined on the despcrutc measure of 
seizing tl e person of the empercr, and keeping him u 
prisoner in the Spanish camp. To effect this, he made 
a proper distribution of his troops, arranging at proper 
stations, his Tlascakm allies, and tlun proceeded to 
visit the emperor in his paluce ; where he charged him 
with having given orders for the attack which had been 
made upon the Spaniards, and demanded reparation. 
Q. What followed? 

A. The astonished monarch, disclaimed having gifen 
the sanction of his authority for the attack, and gave or- 
ders that the aggressors should be brought prisoners 
to Mexico. Cortes expressed his assurance of the 
king's sincerity ; but told him, to remove all apprehen- 
sions from his Spanish followers, it became necessary 
that he should quit his palace, and take up his residence 
in the Spanish quartcrp., where every attention and ho- 
mage should be paid him, which comported with his 

X2 



246 MODERN HISTORY. 

royal dignity. Montezuma was struck dumb and me- 
tionless at this speech ; but recollecting himself repli- 
ed, he should not so far forget his own consequence as 
tamely to submit to be made a prisoner, neither would 
his subjects permit such an insult to his person and au- 
thority. One of the Spanish officers ir an enraged 
tone, exclaimed, let us waste no more time, but either 
seize him instantly, or stab him to the heart. 

Q. What was the conduct of the emperor ? 

A. Appalled at the impassioned and threatening ges- 
tures and aspect of the speaker, he instantly compliedj 
and was conducted into the Spanish quarters, where 
his principal officers visited him as usual, and the busi- 
ness of the state, proceeded for a time in its common 
course; but Cortes, proceeding from one step to another^ 
at length brought Montezuma to submit to the morti- 
fying degradation of acknov/iedi^ing himself the vas- 
sal of Castile ; to hold his crov/n under him as superior, 
and to become his tributary ; to which the chief men 
of the empire were brought to assent. 

Q. Did Velasquez attempt regaining his lost authori- 
ty over Cortes ? 

A. Yes J he gave to Pamphilode Narvaez, the com- 
mand of a large force, and empowered him to seize up- 
on Cortes and his principal officers, and send them to 
Cuba: Narvaez landed on New Spain in April 152Q, 
and sent a priest to Sandoval, who had succeeded upon 
the death of Escalante, to summon him to surrender 
\'era Cru.z ; but the governor seized him and his at- 
tendants, and sent them prisoners to Mexico. 

Q. Did Cortes approve of the measure i* 

A. No ; he received the priest and his attendants with 
|:he utmost apparent kindness, expressed the strong- 
r:st disapprobation of the governor's severity towards 
them ; and gained them so- to his interest, that they 



MEXICO. 247 

ifiiparted witiiout reserve, every thing which he wish- 
ed to know, respecting Narvaez, and the purpose he 
came to effect. He then sent his chaplain with over- 
tures of accommodation, which, as he expected, were 
contemptuously rejected ; but he was more successful 
in secretly gaining over some of the followers of that 
commander. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. Negociation being thus at an end, Cortes left 159 
men in the garrison at Mexico, under the command of 
Pedro de Alvarado, to whom he committed the cap- 
tive monarch, and with all the other force he could 
collect he advanced toward his rival. On his march 
tov/ard the coast, he was joined by Sandoval and the 
garrison of Vera Cruz ; but his whole force after this 
junction did not exceed 250, v/hiie that of his rival 
amounted to 800 soldiers and 80 horsemen. 

Q. What was the result ? 

A. The rainy season had set in with great violence, 
and Cortes seized this opportunity to fall upon the 
troops of Narvaez in the dead of the night, when, secure 
in the superiority of their numbers, and the impracti- 
cability of active operations, amidst tempests which 
they were unable to withstand, the usual circum- 
specdon of camps was much relaxed. The assailants, 
surmounting the difficulties arising from the darkness 
of the night, began a furious onset on their countrymen, 
and spread consternation wherever they came. But 
as it was neither the interest nor disposition of tlie vic- 
tors to shed blood, the soldiers of Narvaez were soon 
brought to lay down their arms, which induced their 
officers to surrender on terms. This complete vic- 
tory was obtained with the loss of only two soldiers on 
the part of Cortes, and two officers and 1 5 soldiers in 
the army of Narvaez, who, with ei few who still adhered 



248 MODERN HISTORY. 

to him, were made prisoners : the rest enlisted under 
the banners of Cortes. 

Q. What \vas the situation of Mexico ; 

A. Alvarado to whom had been left the command of 
the garrison, regardless of his small force, attacked the 
Mexicans, witli brutal ferocity, when assembled on one 
of their chief festivals, and massacred them without 
distinction, stripping- ihem of the rich ornaments which 
they wore in honour of the occasion. This unprovoked 
attack i-oused the whole city to arms : they destroyed 
two brigantines which (.'ortes had some time before 
erected on the lake, and attacked the garrison, although 
their beloved and revered monarch wa^ detained there 
as an hostage. Cortes being apprised of the perilous 
situation to which his people had brought themselves, 
Ttiarched back his accumulated force with haste to their 
assistance ; and, confiding in his power, he disdained 
any longer to yield to temporising measures : all ap- 
pearance of respect to IMontezuma, Avas tlicrefore laid 
aside. Instead of disapproving the sanguinary out- 
rage, committed by his officer, he spoke of the Mexi- 
cans in the most contemptuous and menacing manner. 

Q. What effect had this upon them ?. 

A. They flew to arms, and attacked the Spaniards in 
everv direction, with an impetuosity unknown btiore. 
Although numbers were swept away yet otiiers eagerly- 
rushed forward to supply their places, and the onset 
was maintained with unabating fury. The general, 
to strike terror inlo the assailants, made a powerful sally 
which he conducted in person, but in this his former 
good fortune forsook him ; a second was not more 
successful. As his last resource he brought forth the cap- 
tive monarch, after having properly instructed him how 
to address the people, in order to prevail on them to 



MEXICO. 249 

lay aside their animosity, as tliey bore down to a fresh 
assault upon tlie building. 

Q. What effect had this stratagem ? 

A. The appearance of the emperor, checked for a 
moment the impetuous torrent ; but all respect for his 
person and character, was soon renounced, and their 
rage rekindling, two arrows entered his body, and a 
stone directed at him, struck him to the ground. When 
brouglit to his apartment, and recovered from the 
shock, he felt all the depth of ignominy to which he 
was sunk from his height of grandeur ; and resolving 
no longer to drag on a life of infamy, all the attentions 
which Cortes and his ofliccrs paid him, he returned 
with contempt, rejected all sustenance, rent the ban- 
dages from his wounds with indignant scorn, and in 
this paroxysm of remorse and rage, he expired. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The only means of safety remaining to the Spani- 
ards, was in a retreat, which they attempted in the 
night ; but the Mexicans, suspecting their intention, 
were prepared to follow them. Ihc causeway which 
led from the city being broken down, and every impedi- 
ment effected to check their march, tliey fell upon 
them with an extirpating impetuosity. The Spaniards, 
wiio had been accustomed to spread destruction ancj 
terror around them, experienced a total defeat. Their 
artillery, ammunition, and baggage were lost, with the 
chief part of the rich plunder, which had excited them 
to perpetrate all their ciimcs and cruelties: Besides 
2000 Tlascalans, according to Castillo, 870 Spaniards 
perished, and only 440 escaped, who foimd a friendly 
asylum in the province of Tlascala. 

Q. Was Cortes wholly discouraged ? 

A. No ; although reduced to the most degraded 
situation, liis spirit remained unsubdued. He despatched 



'250 MODERN HISTORY. 

iin officer to Hispaniola and Jamaica to engage adven- 
turers, and to procure horses, gunpowder, and stores ; 
he employed Indians to cut donn timber in the forests 
of Thiscala, for building bri::antines, which he intended 
carrying in detached parts to the lake of Mexico. 
While these measures were taking, two vessels entered 
the harbour of N'cra Cruz, Avith a reinforcement of 
men, and a supply of miiitury stores. 

Q. Who were they sent by ? 

A. By \''elas(|uez to his general Narvaez, in full con- 
fidence of the prosperous issue of his expedition. Three 
ships afterwards arrived fitted cut by the governor of 
Jamaica, aixl one from Spdin with military stores 
which was fitted out l)y private adventurers. With 
this reinforcement, and 10,000 Indians his allies, he set 
out on his second expedition against Mexico, on the 
2Sth of December 1520, six months after his fatal 
defeat. 

Q. Who succeeded Montezuma? 

A. His brother Qualavaca, a man of eminent brave- 
ry and distinguished talents, who had conducted the at- 
tacks which had been made ujxjn the Spaniards in the 
capital. He endeavoured by the most soothing repre- 
sentations, to recover to his interest, all the country 
powers which had formed alliances with Cortes; and 
prepared with great diligence and ability to oppose him ; 
but in the midst of these noble exertions to deliver his 
country from merciless plunderers, the small-pox ter- 
minated his life, (iuatimozin the nephew of Monte- 
zuma, who had married his daughter, was then elected 
to the Mexican throne. 

Q. What was the success of Cortes ? 

A. He first subdued Tezcuco, the second city in 
Mexico, situate about twenty miles from the capital, on 
the banks of the lake, where he fixed his head quarters ; 



MEXICO. 251 

in three months after which thirteen brigantines were 
completed and hiunched on the lake : and about the 
same time, four ships arrived at Vera Cruz, with two 
hundred soldiers, and a supply of ammunition and 
arms. 

Q. What was the amount of his force after receiv- 
ing- this addition ? 

A. He had eii^ht hundred and sixteen foot soldiers, and 
eighty-six horsemen, three battering cannon, and fifteen 
field pieces, beside a numerous body of Indians, w hich 
was allotted to each division. With these, he commenc- 
ed his operations against the city of Mexico ; and on the 
third of July lo2 1, put his whole force in motion, with 
a design to make a general assault. The division 
which he led on in person, bore down every thing be- 
fore it, by resistless bravery and force, and entered the 
city : Julian de Alderebe, who had arrived with the last 
troops from liispaniola, was directed to fill up the 
chasms and ij:aps in tiie causeway, as the main body 
advanced, in order to secure a retreat if their safety 
demanded it ? 

Q. Did he attend to his trust? 

A. No ; he rushed forward to the fight, which being 
observed by Guatimozin, he availed himself to the ut- 
most of this indiscretion. By his orders, the Mexicans 
gave way and drew the Spaniards into the central part 
of the city, while a band of his choicest warriors pro- 
ceeded to the breach in the causeway, to cut off the 
enemy's retreat. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. When he had brought his design to the fit mo- 
ment for execution, Uie priests in the great temple, re- 
ceiving the appointed signal, sounded the awlul drum, 
which was consecrated to their imaginary (*od of war ; 
whose sounds diffused universally, a desperate and mad- 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

dcnini^ fury : instanUy tlu y rushed upon the Spauiardi, 
now bei^innini^ to be exliuusted by a conflict so severe 
and so long susi.aincd ; their impetuosity was not to be 
withstood, and a retreat was all that could be effected ; 
but when they reached the causeway they found them- 
selves deprived even of this means of safety. 

Q. Wluit was the conduct of Cortes : 

A. Perccivinvj every thing to be lost, he bent his 
whole attention to save such as were plunged into the 
water ; while thus employed, six Mexican captains 
seized him, and were hastening away with their inesti- 
mable prize, when two of his own oftkers rescued him 
from captivity at the price of their own lives. Several 
Spaniards perished in the disorderly retreat, and more 
■were made prisoners, wlio were supposed to have suf- 
fered a cioiel death. 

Q. Did not this discomfiture lead Cortes lo change 
his mode of attack ? 

A. Yes ; instead of aiming at the possession of the 
city by one decisive onset, he determined to proceed by 
gradual approaches : his brigantincs having the com- 
mand of the lake, cut oft' nil supplies from the adjacent 
country by that means, while the Indians in his service, 
as effectually inlcrsepted every thing by land. Famine 
now began to sweep away great numbers, as two hun- 
dred thousand persons were supp ^sed to have been shut 
up in the city. 

Q. What was the conduct of (iuatimozin. 

A. His :li.:^nificd mind ixjecled all overtures of peace, 
and he determined to perisli in defending his empire 
and its capital. But .vhen the siege had continued 
seventy-five days, and the Spaniards had penetrated 
into the centre of the cily, all hopes were lost, and the 
Mexican chiefs prevailed on him to attempt eflecting 
his escape, from a place consigned to destruction, and 



MEXICO. 25S 

l)y his presence to cxcile ihc distant provinces to rise 
inarms; but the penetrating^ vigilance of Ccrtcs frus- 
trated the plan, and the unfortunate monarch was cap- 
tured ; after which all resistance on the part of the Mexi- 
cans ceased. 

Q. Did the possession of the city p;ratify their expec- 
tations ? 

A. No ; it only served to disappoint their hopes ; for 
instead of becoming masters of inexhaustible treasures, 
they were recompensed with very inconsiderable acquisi- 
tions; and Cortes, to appease their discontents, added to 
his numerous acts of atrocious cruelty, that of causing 
Ciuatimozin, and his chief favourite, to be put to the tor- 
ture, in order to extort from them a confession where 
the wealth of the imperial city was concealed ; but no 
agonies could shake the constancy of the emperor, nor 
would he suffer his companion in torture, to make any 
confession. 

Q. Was Cortes acknowlcd;^ed by the king of Spain, 
after adding these valuable territories to the Spanisli 
monarchy ? 

A. Yes; Charles V. fully sensible of the merits of 

Cortes, and the further services which he was capable of 

. rendcrinj;, notwithstanding the claims urged by \'elas- 

quez, appointed him captain-general, and governor of 

New Spain. 

Q. What was the treatment which the Mexicans re- 
ceived from the Spaniards, after they were brought un- 
der subjection ? 

A. It was cruel and oppressive beyond description ; 
and when their sufferings drove them to acts of vio- 
lence, these furnished a pretext to reduce them to sla- 
very. Hut the nobles who were incapable of bodily la- 
bour, were put to death in the most cruel manner ; and 

Y 



^54 MODERN HISTORY. 

tlic ni?.o;nann-nous (Uratimozin, with two of the mo&l 
considerable persons in the empire, were publicly handl- 
ed, from a suspicion wliicli was without proofs, that lie 
was formin*^ cicsis^ns to raise an insurrection. 

Q. Did Cortes continue in favour with the king of 
Spain ? ^ 

A. No ; the commissioners who were nominated to 
receive the royal revenue, to pay the salaries of officers, 
and to transmit the residue independent of the gover- 
nor, observine^ the absolute power which he exercised 
over the conquered country, represented him to the em- 
pei'or as a tyrant, who souu;ht to render himself inde- 
pendent in the country which he had conquered, and 
which he ruled with a rod of iron. Charles, alarmed at 
their representations, appointed Ponce de Leon, to 
s'jizc tlie person of Cortes, and if necessary, send iiiui 
prisoner to Spain ; but the death of Leon, soon after iiis 
arrival, defeated the attempt to displace liim. 

Q. What was the conduct of Cortes ? 

A. To avoid a proscculion on the spot where his 
triumphs 'nad been so splendid and decisive, he deter- 
mined to repair to Castile, wlierc he arrived in 1328, 
and appeared with a splendour which suited the con- 
queror of a i^rcat kingdom. His arrival in Spain, re- 
moved at once every suspicion and fear which had been 
entertained with respect to his intentions; and he was 
received as a pcrsoji whom a consciousness of his ov/n 
innocence had ijrjught into tlie presence of his master, 
and who was entitled by the eminence of his services, 
to the highest marks cf distinction and respect. The or- 
der of St. Jago, the title of marquis del \'aiie de Guaxa- 
ca, and the grant of an ample territory in New Spain, 
were succciisivcly bestowed upon him ; and as his man- 
ners were correct and elegant, although he had passed 
f1ie greatest p.''.rt of his life among rough adventurers, 



MEXICO. 255 

the emperor admitted him to the samj familiar inter- 
course with himself, that was enjoyed by noblemen of 
the first rank. 

Q. Did these honoiu's and distinctions fully satibfy 
Cortes ? 

A. No ; he wished to obtain the government of New 
Spain, with ample powers ; but such authority was re- 
fused him by the emperor, who only gave him a license 
io prosecute new discoveries, and invested him with the 
military department. The chief power m civil affairs, 
was entrusted to a court called the audience of New 
Spain. 

Q. When did Cortes return there ? 

A. In 1530, where he continued ten years, and then 
revisited Europe in extreme disgust. His reception 
on his second arrival was very different from the for- 
mer. The emperor cxpeclini^ no further services, was 
no longer familiar ; but though his behaviour was no 
more than distantly civil, yet his ministers thought it 
not worth while to pitserve that decorum. In this irk- 
some situation, he dragged out about the last seven 
years of his life, dying on the ~d December 1 j 17, in tlio 
()2d ytar of his a^e. 



PKIIU. 

Q. WHO were the first fortunate adventurers to the 
South of Panama. 

A. Francisco Pizarro, a Spaniard of low birth and no 
education, whose strength of body and daring spirit led 
him to becom J a soldier in his youth ; Diago de Alma- 
gro, another soldier of fortune, and H.;rmando Luque, 



256 MODERN HISTORY. 

a priest ; these three agreed to throw their properly 
into one joint stock, with which they fitted out a small 
vessel, havino; on board one hundred and twelve men, 
in which Pizarro embarked on the 14th of November, 
1524, and Almagro, in another vessel, some time after 
followed him. It was a considerable time before a junc- 
tion was formed, and Pizarro and his party experienced 
in the voyage the most severe sufferings. 
Q. Where did they first land ? 

A. On the coast of Peru, three degrees south of the 
line. Here they saw a stately temple, and a palace be- 
longing to the sover-eign of the country, which bespoke 
the opulence and civilization of the inhabitants. They 
brought away some gold and silver vessels, and two of 
the natives, one of whom afterwards served as an inter* 
preter. 

Q. What was the next step which they took ? 
A. Having failed in gaining the necessary support 
from the Spanish American settlements, Pizarro pro- 
ceeded t,o Spain, to solicit aid of the government, but 
could obtain no farther support, than granting a sanc- 
tion to the expedition, by the royal liccBse, and an ap- 
pointment of governor of the new settlements which 
might be made ; and Almagro lieutenant-governor ; for 
v/hich Pizarro engaged to raise two hundred and fifty 
men, to provide the ships, and likewise the military 
litores. 

Q. At what time did they sail ? 

A. In February 1531, when the three partners could 
only procure three small vessels, and one hundred and 
eighty soldiers ; thirty -six cf whom were horsemen. 
Pizarro took with him his three brothers, Ferdinand, 
Juan, and Gonzalo. He landed his troops in the bay 
of St. Matthew. As the only distinguished quality 
v,hich this leader possessed v/as a brutal hardness of 



PERU. 257 

iTiind and body, he made no attempt to conciliate the 
natives, but on the contrary, attacked them where ever 
a present advantage was to be seized ; which caused the 
Peruvians to abandon their habitations, and fly up the 
country. 

Q. Did not this measure deprive him of the neces- 
sary supplies of provisions for his men ? 

A. Yes ; but after enduring severe hardships, which 
excited loud discontents, he reached the province of 
Coaque, where he surprised the principal settlement, 
and seized vessels and ornaments of gold and silver to 
the amount of thirty thousand pesosj with other valua- 
ble spoils. He immediately despatched a ship to Fa- 
nama, with a large remittarice to Almagro, and conti- 
nued his march along the coast, 

Q. What was his success ? 

A. He scarcely m.et with resistance until he attacked 
the island of Puna, in the bay of Guayquil, which was 
populous, and the people fierce and warlike. They de- 
fended themselves with great bravery, and he spent six 
months in reducing them. He then rcturn.cd to Tum- 
bez, where the sickly state of his small arniy compelled 
him to remain three months. 

Q. What v/as the extent of the empire of Peru, at 
the time of this invasion ? 

A. It extended fifteen hundred miles along the Pacific 
Ocean, from north to south, and was bounded by the 
Andes, on the east. The Incas or lords of Peru, by a 
tradition of the country, were said to have sprung from 
the sun. The reverence paid to them v/as unbounded ; 
they were not only absolute monarchs, but were revered 
as divinities ; but the power which they thus possessed, 
is represented to have been uniformly exercised with 
mildness, liuana Capac, the twelfth monarch of the 
Incas, was celebrated like his predecessors, for his vir- 

Y2 



258 MODERN HISTORY. 

tiies and taknts ; he was a warlike prince, and brought 
the kin^^doni of Quito under j.is subjection. Until this 
time, the descendants of the sun (as they were styled) 
had, in no instance, interniarried with tfie people of the 
country ; but Iluana Capac married thedaugluer of the 
vanquished monarch of Quito, from whom sprang 
a son nai^ie.l Atahualpa, This son, on the death of his 
f ither, about 15 30, succeeded to that kingdom ; while 
Ikiascar, t.iiOther son, by a princess of the royal race, 
succeeded to all the other dominions. 

Q. What was the consequence of this dismember- 
Dicnt of the empire ? 

A. It produced a civil war, during which Atahualpa 
vanquished his rival; and to strengthen himself in pow- 
er, put to deat!i all of the royal race, descended from 
his father, that he could seize either by force or strata- 
gem, lluascar only excepted, who having been takea 
p;*isoaer, was suffered to live, t))at he might issue or- 
ders under the direction of the conqueror. Informa- 
tion of this state of affairs was communicated to Pizar- 
ro at St. Michael, by a message sent to him by Huas- 
rar, soliciting hi"; aid a.rainst his brother Atahualpa, 
whom he represented as a rebel and an usurper. 

Q. Did he comply with the request ? 

A. Yes ; nothing could have been more acceptable 
to the Spanish invader, than such intelligence ; and he 
immediately proceeded toward Caxamalca, twelve days 
march from the coast, where Atahualpa was encamp- 
ed : on his way, he was met by an officer with valuable 
presents, who arrived from Atahualpa, with proffers of 
liis alliance, and assurances of fi iendship. 

Q. What was the conduct oi Pizarro ? 

A To delude the Inca, he asserted that he was sent 
by a very powerful monarch, and that his design in ad- 
vancing, was to offer him his assistance. On entering 



PERU. 259 

Caxamaica, he took possession of a large court, sur- 
rounded with a strong rampart, and despatched his bro- 
ther Ferdinand, and an officer, to the camp of the Inca, 
^vhich was about a league from the town, for the pur- 
pose of confirming his declaration of the pacific disposi- 
tion with which he was come, and to request an inter- 
view, 

Q. In what manner were they received ? 

A. They met with the most cordial reception, and the 
monarch returned for answer, that he would visit the 
Spanish commander the next day, in his quarters. The 
decent manners of the Peruvians, the reverence which 
they paid to tlieir sovereign, but still more, the profu- 
sion of wealth which every where appeared, struck the 
Spaniards with astonishment. The report which they 
made to Pizarro on their return, determined him to 
seize upon the person of the Inca on the ensuing visit, 
and to pour destruction on his unsuspecting subjects. 

Q. AV'as the Inca in any measure aware of the strata- 
gem v.'hicli was formed against him ? 

A. Xo ; although he was stained with the blood of 
hii kindred, he was not laugiit by his own crimes, to 
entertain the smallest suspicion of the machinations 
which were formed against him ; but his whole aiLcn- 
tion was directed to impress upon his foreign visitors 
an admiration of his magniticCiice and power. 'I'hc 
procession was in the highest style of pomp. 400 men, 
in an uniform dress, preceded as harbingers. The 
Inca was seated on a throne or couch, adoiTicd witli 
plumes of various colours, and almost covered with 
plates of gold and silver, enriched with precious stones ; 
which was borne on the shoulders of his principal at- 
tendants. Some of the chief offic;crs of his court v»'ho 
Were carried in the same manner, followed him Several 
bands of singers and dancers accompanied this grand 



260 -MODERN HISTORY. 

procession ; and the whole plain was covered ^vith 
troops, ^^'hicll were supposed to amount to 30,000 men. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. As the Inca entered the Spanish quarters, Val- 
verdc, a dominican friar, who was chaplain to the ex- 
pedition, advanced toward him with a crucilix wi one 
hand, and a breviary in the other ; and in a lon^j^ dis- 
course, endeavoured to explain the principles of the 
Christian fiith, exhorting him to embrace that religion, 
to acknowledge the supreme jurisciictian of the pope, 
and to yield submission to the king of Spain, to whom 
the pope had given the empire of Peru. 

Q. What was the coiiduct of Atahualpa? 

A. lie liitened with great attention to the insolent 
harangue, but declared that although he wished to 
become the friend of the king of Spain, he would not 
be his vassal : and then expressed a desire to know 
where the wonderful doctrines of which he had lx;en 
speaking were to be found. Valverde presented to 
him his breviary, und informed him they were con- 
tained in that book The Inca opened it eagerly, and 
applied it to his ear. Tiiis book, says he, is silent ; 
it tells mc nothing ; and then threw it disdainfully on 
the ground. The furious ecclesiastic, turning towards 
the Spaniards, instantly cxcl.vimed, Vengeance, Chris- 
tians ! the word of Gtx' is profaned ; kill those impious 
dop-s, who despise the religion of the cross. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The signal of ass.iult was gi«/en, the martial music 
struck up ; the two ficUl pieces were discharged ; at 
the same time that the musketry spiead destruction 
and terror, tl.e cavalry rusiied out and opened a way 
for the infantry to advance sword i;i hand, I'he fury 
of this unlooked-ibr attack, deprive 1 tl.e Peruvians of 
the power of resistance. More them 4000 Indians 



PERU. 



26 i 



were slain, and the Inca taken prisoner, without any 
loss on the part of the assailants. 

Q. What means did Atahualpa take to obtain his 
liberty ? 

A. He offered as a ransom, to fill the apartment in 
which he was confined, with vessels of gold and silver 
as high as he could reach : its dimensions were 22 
feet by 16. Pizarro agreed to the conditions ; and tlie 
Inca immediately despatched messengers to every part 
of his dominions where gold had been amassed, and the 
people, anxious to obtain the enlargement of their sove- 
reign, cheerfully delivered up whatever was in their 
possession. The greatest part of the stipulated con- 
tribution was thus collected, and the remainder collect- 
ing in the different provinces. But the sight of such 
vast piles of gold excited a maddening impatience in 
the soldiers ; and their leader not less solicitous for 
possessing it, could no longer refrain from issuing orders 
for mching it down ; and the 25th of July, 1333, was 
appointed for dividmg the booty. 

Q. What was the amount ? 

A. After setting apart the fifth, due to the crown, 
and 100,000 pesos as a donative to the soldiers, who, 
agreeably to advice received by Pizarro, had arrived with 
Almagro at St. Michael's; there remained 1,528,500 
pesos to Pizarro and his followers, at that time not in- 
ferior to as many pounds sterling in the present century. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The Inca now claimed the fulfilment of the con- 
tract, and to be set at liberty j but Pizarro disregarded 
his engagement, and with a temper more cruel than 
his predecessor and , great exemplar Cortes, could 
not conceal his savage disposition even under the dis- 
guise of assumed complacency. Almagro, and his fol- 
lowcrsj soon after arrived, and expressed great dissatis- 



262 



MODERN HISTORY. 



faction at the share assigned to them of the Inca's ran- 
som, and v.cre jcidous of what, hi future, might be ac- 
quired by those who were about his person. They 
therefore iniiistcd upon his immediate death, as the only 
means of placinj]^ them on an equal footinj^ with the 
other adventurers. A form of trial in consequence 
took place, and the wretched Atahualpa was put to 
death. Tlie enoL'mity of these proceedings occasioned 
several of the followers of Fizarro, openly to declare 
their abhorrence of such a ^iolatiGn of idl law, moral 
and divine. 

Q. Who succeeded Atalmalpa ? 

A. One of his sons was named Inca of Peru and 
Quito, by Tiziu'ro ; but the people of Cuzco received 
Manco Capac, a brother of Huascar who had been assi\s- 
sinated by the order of Atahualpa. Usurpers however 
arose, upon the death of Atahualpa, in every part of 
the empire, each actuated by tlie rage of destroying 
every descendant of the sun that they could any wliere 
seize upon. 

Q. What followed? 
^ A. Pizarro, having received large additions of strength, 
and confidhig in the dissensions which tore the empire, 
marched agidnst Cuzco, which fell an easy prey to bis 
rapacity, and which furnished him with riches surpass- 
ing tliose, that the delusive covenant for the ransom of 
Atahualpa had extorted. Eenalcazar, governor of St. 
Michael, being continually strengthened by the arrival 
of new adveiiturers, resolved to attempt the conquest 
of Quito : and after a toilsome march through a moun- 
tainous country entered the capital ; l)ut the treasure 
expected to be found tlierc, the hopes of possessing 
which, had animated and supported the party to bear 
their sufferijit^-s, had been carried ofi'by the natives 



PERU. 263 

Q. Who was despatched with the coin due to the 
crown ? 

A. Ferdinand Pizarro, who, on his arrival in Spain, 
aetonished the nation Mith the profusion of gold and sil- 
ver which he delivered into the public treasury. An ac- 
quisition so great and miexpected, so seasonably recruit- 
ed the emperor's cofiers, whicli were exhausted by his 
schemes of boundless ambition and persecuting tyranny, 
that it removed every ground of scruple how it might 
have been obtained. Honours and appointments were li- 
l)erally conferred in recompense for such essential servi- 
ces : Francisco Pizarro received a confirmation of his 
authority, with additional powers and privileges, and a 
faither - extent of 70 leagues along the coast, to the 
southward of the former grant. Almagro was appoint- 
ed adelantado or governor, with jurisdiction over 200 
leagues of country farther to the southward than those 
granted to Pizarro. Ferdinand was invested with the 
military order of St. Jago, and returned to Peru. 
Q. ^V hat followed? 

A. Almagro, by an agreement between the parties, 
undertook the conc[ucst of Chili, which he invaded at the 
head of 570 men. The route he cliose was over the 
Andes : in his march he was exposed to the severest 
hardships, under wliich many of his followers perished ; 
and when tlius worn down with extreme fatigue, they 
fmind the natives prepared to oppose them ; while ro- 
bust bodies, undaunted courage, and v, ai like habits, ren- 
dered them formidable enemies. Much time was there- 
fore spent in subduing them. 

Q. What was the further conduct of Pizarro ? 
A. Considering the Peruvians as fully conquered, he 
turned his attention to estal)lisi;ing a form of govern- 
ment in the extensive provinces which he had acquired. 
lie divided the coimtry into districts, appointed magis- 



264 MODERN HISTORY. 

tratesy courts of justice, and the mode of collecting the 
revenue, working the mines, and the treatment of the 
Indians. He further extended his views to founding a 
city, which should be the capital of a great empire. The 
situation he made choice of, was the valley of Rimac, 
one of the most extensive and best cultivated spots in 
Peru. The city is now known by the name of Lima. 
Here he erected a magnificent palace for his own resi- 
dence, and stately houses were soon constructed for his 
principal officers. 
Q. When was this ? 

A. About 1536. The spirit of the Peruvians, which, 
until this time, had appeared so abject, now began to 
burst forth, and to excite a general combination to oppose 
their tyrants. Manco Capac found means to carry on 
a secret correspondence, and at the celebration of a 
grand festival, the plan which had been fully matured 
wdthout any suspicion being excited, appeared in a ge- 
neral insurrection ; the standard of war was erected, 
■ and all the warriors throughout the empire, were in 
arms j many Spaniards were massacred, and the city of 
Cuzco was attacked, in which were the three brothers 
of Pizarro, with a garrison consisting of no more than 
170 men. At the same time the new city of Lima was 
invested, and all communication between the two places 
cut off. The siege of Cuzco continued nine months, 
in the course which, Juan Pizarro with several other 
persons of note were slain, and Munco Capac obtained 
possession of half the city. 
Q. What followed ? 

A. Vv^hen the besieged were driven to the last extre- 
mity, Almagro with his detachment appeared. He had 
received the royal patent, which t.ppointed him govern- 
or of Chili, and defined its limits, within which he was 
fully assured Cuzco lay, and he appeared before it, to 



PERU. 265 

gain its possession by force of arms from Pizarro, who 
had contended that it was wiiliin his jurisdiction. After 
defeating and dispersing the Peruvians, he made him- 
self master of Cuzco, when the two surviving brothers 
ofPizArro, Ferdinand, and Gonzalo, became his pri- 
soners. 

Q. What was the fate of the new city of Lima ? 

Ar Pizarro having received large remforcements from 
the Spanish colonies, totally routed the Peruvians, after 
which he sent 500 men under the command of Alonzo 
de Alvarado to the relief of his brothers at Cuzco, of 
whom he had heard no tidings for nine months. 

Q. Did Alvarado effect the escape of Pizarro's bro- 
thers ? 

Q. No ; the superior generalship of Almagro, ena- 
bled him to baffle the attack ; he surprised Alvarado by 
night, took him prisoner, and several of his principa 
officers ; but instead of pursuing his advantage, and 
inarching immediately to Lima, he resolved to wait the 
approach of his enemy al Cuzco. Pizarro in the mean 
time amused him with negociation, while Gonzalo and 
Alvarado escaped from confinement and repaired to 
Lima. Pizarro, secured from all apprehensions concern- 
ing one of his brothers, proposed to Almagro, that the 
justice of their respective claims should be I'eferred to 
the court of Spain, and that his captive brother Ferdi- 
nand should be liberated, and deputed en the part of the 
governor, and accompany the deputies sent on the part 
of Almagro. 

Q. Did Almagro suffer himself to be imposed upon 
by so shalloAv an artifice ? 

A. Yes : but Ferdinand had no sooner regained his 
liberty, than his brother the governor threw off the 
mask, and declared that the possession of Peru must be 

Z 



26G MODERN HISTORY. 

held by him ^vho could obtain it by force of arms ; to 
effect which he raised 700 men, and gave the command 
of this armament to his two brothers. 

Q. What followed? 

A. Almagro waited their approach in the plains of 
Ciizco ; each party was eager to engage, while the 
mountains, which encompassed the plain, were covered 
with Indians assembled to behold the gratifying specta- 
cle of the self-destruction of the Spaniards. The event 
of the battle was the entire defeat of Almagro's party, 
and himself made prisoner, in 15 38. lie was afterwards, 
upon being tried for high treason, and condemned, 
strangled in prison, and then publicly beheaded. He 
left one son by an Indian woman of Panama, 'whom he 
appointed his successor in his government. This 
youth was then at Lima. 

Q. Did the conduct of the Pizarro reach Spain ? 

A. Yes ; and although Ferdinand arrived there soon 
after, he in vain attempted to erase the impression wliich 
the charges brou'ght against him and his two brothers 
had made. lie was taken into custody and kept in con- 
finement for twenty years ; and Christoval Vaca de Cas- 
tro, a judge in the royal audience at Valladolid, was 
sent to restore tranquillity, with large discretionary pow- 
ers. 

Q. What became of the son of Almagro ? 

A. In 1 j41 he had arrived to manhood ; having been 
educated with great care, and possessing engaging man- 
jiers, the followers of his father placed their hopes of ob- 
taining reflrcss in supporting him, and overthrowing the 
tyrant. Tlie leader of these malcontents was named 
Herrada ; U^c plot was fast ripening, and the proceed- 
ings ha\ing been noticed by some of the adherents to 
the governor, he was cautioned to be on his guard ; but 
disdaining to attend to their apprehensions, the security 



PERU. 



267 



in vhlch he reposed b.imself proved fatal; for Herra- 
da at the head of 1 8 men, entered his palace, in open day, 
putting to death all who opposed them, till forcing 
their way into the tyrant's recess, he fell, after having 
resolutely withstood for some time, the foirce of the as- 

sail ants. 

Q. What followed ? 

A. The country was thrown into the most violent com- 
motion : the engaging manners of young Almagro pro- 
cured him many adherents, but the attachments to the 
late governor predominated. His brother Gonzalo Fi- 
zarro, who had superseded I]enalcazar in the govern^ 
ment of Quito, was not at hand to assert his right to the 
vacant government; and Vaca de Castro in the mean 
time arrived. He prf)diiced the royal appointment wh.ich 
constituted him governor, and his authority was acknow- 
Icdged wherever he came. In September 1 542, a deci- 
Mve battle was fought between the army led on by dc 
Castro, and the followers of young Almagro, who was 
taken, and publicly beheaded at Cuzco. 

Q. Did not Charles V. turn his attention to the dis- 
tracted and oppressed state of the country ? 

A. Yes; he catised a body of laws to be framed for 
America, which tended to lessen the power of the new 
settlers, and which exempted the Indians from personal 
service : they were not compellable to carry the bur- 
dens of travellers, to labour in the mines, or to dive in 
the pearl fishery. The humane Las Casas, who had 
long been the distinguished friend of the oppressed In- 
dians, had been consulted by the emperor on this inter- 
esting point. He sent Francisco Tello de Sandoval to 
Mexico to co-operate wiih the viceroy there ; at the 
same time he sent Balsco Nugncz Vela, to Peru as go- 
vernor with the title of viceroy, and appointed a ccuit of 
roval audience composed of four eminent Idwvers. 



26S MODERJ^ HISTORY. 

Q. What effect had these new regulations ? 

A. In Mexico, tlicy produced no open act of opposi- 
tion, but in Peru, they excited the most violent ferment : 
hut Nugnez \'ela entirely disregarded the opposition he 
might have to encounter. Confiding in the plenitude 
cf his power, he disdained to assume a gentleness of 
manners, in order to cfTect his determined purpose of 
carrying into eflcct tlie lav/s he was sent to introduce ; 
he therefore began to exercise the functions entrusted 
to him in the highest style of uuthoiity. Tlie Indians 
were every where declared to be free, as he proceeded 
to Lima ; and when he arrived there his consequen- 
tial deportment disgusted a people who were little accus- 
tomed to reverence legal autliority. Several persons of 
rank \Yere confined, and some put to death without any 
form of trial. The former governor \'^aca de Castro, 
was seized, imprisoned, and c\cn pi;t in chains. 

Q. Did not a conduct so rash and imprudent frustrate 
ihe iutenlitms of the governor? 

A. Yes; aru.1 the Spaniards, who were rip^ for a revolt, 
were soon unanimous in a leader, (ionzalo Pizarro 
was named at Cuzco, procurator general of the Spanish 
nation in Peru, and was empowered to lay their gene- 
ral remonstrances before the royal audience at Lima, 
wh.cn after ba\ing made himself master of the royal 
treasure, levied soldiers, and seized a large train of ar- 
tillery, he immediately proceeded and in a battle which 
he fouglit against Xugnez, he was slain : his head cutoff 
and placed o!i the public gil^bet at Quito. Kvery thing 
then submitted to Pizarro. his authority in Peru was ac- 
knowledged ; his i'eet rode in triumph on the South sea ; 
he had taken Panama, and garrisoned Nombrc De Dies, 
on the opposite side of Isthumus, which gave him pos- 
session of the only course of communication at that 
time used between Spain and Pi^ru ; elated with this vast 



PERU. 269 

accession cf power, he guve l.imself up and his fcllou- 
ers to the most licentious indulgencies. 

Q. What followed? 

A. Charles V. fully sensible that lenient and tempo- 
rising measures alone Avould secure to him the valuable 
possession of Peru, he appointed Pedro De La Gasca, 
v*hose disposition was entirely different frcm that of his 
late viceroy, and who would accept of no other official 
appointment than that of president of the court of au- 
dience in Lima, and declared that he would receive no 
salaiy ; but required very c!vtcnsive powers to settle 
the government cf Peru, which were granted him, and 
he eets;dl in May 15 -16. 

Q. Did he meet wit!i opposiuon ? 

A. Yes ; Pizarro.ipon hearing of his-arrival at Pana- 
ma, determined to oppose his entrance into Peru ; but 
the fleet declaring in favour of Gasca, and his forces 
deseithig him, he was mu<le prisoner and the following 
day beheaded. And Gasca, after having done every 
thing, which moderation, disintei esledness and wisdom 
dictated, set out for Spain in 1550, having committed 
the government of Peru to the coiu't of audience. 

Q. What was his reception in Sp;dn ? 

A. He was received by the emperor, with the most 
distinguished marks of esteem, and being promoted to 
the bishopric of Palencia, he passed the remainder of 
his days in the tranquillity of retirement, respected by 
his country, honoured ivy hiu sovereign, and beloved 
by all. 

Q. What was the subsequent state cf that country ? 

A. It was not to be supposed that salutary laws should 

be uniformly submitted to in succeeding years, by such 

men as the Spaniards settled in Peru ; but although in 

surrections and rebellions did break out, which at dif- 

Z 2 



270 MODERN HISTORY. 

fercnt limes created much commotion and misery in 
the country, yet the power of the Spanish monarchy 
gradually acquired strength and ascendency ; a more 
quiet and tractable race of men succeeded to the fierce 
despoilers of the unhappy Indians, iuid the tyranny of 
despotic regal rule has now for two centuries, been ful- 
1 stablished there, as in every other part of the Spii- 
nish possessions in the western world. 



NORTH AMLRICA. 

Q. W IIKN was N'orth America discovered ? 

A. 'riic Knglish, conducted by John Cabot, in 1497, 
found the way to that coutUry, soon aflcr Columbus 
had successfully crossed the ocean ; but as the torrents 
in North America, brought down no gold, and the In- 
dians were not bedecked with any costly ornaments, 
no attempts v. ere made to explore the country for near 
a century after its discovery. Sir I'rancis Drake, who 
traversed the whole circumference of the globe in 
1577, gained some knowledge of the Eastern shore of 
the northern continent, as he had before of the western 
parts of the Tacific ocean, about the same parallel : 
but Sir Walter Raleigh, was the first who explored the 
coast, bestowed on it a name, and attempted to settle a 
colony in 1 584. 

Q. Did the improvcmeiU of the country immediately 
follow this attempt ? 

A. No ; the lands were overspread with thick woods ; 
the caprices of a savage race were to be soothed, their 
jealousies of new settlers to be removed, or their power 
to be opposed. And at that time colonization made a 



NORTH AMERICA. 271 

small part of the system of government, so that there 
were few stimulants to abandon a native soil, for the 
purpose of seeking possessions in another hemisphere : 
but at length a powerful incentive arose, stronger than 
the influence of kings, the love of ease, or the dread of 
misery, licligion, which had long been converted into 
the most powerful engine that human subtility ever 
made use of to subjugate the mass of mankind, no 
sooner ceased to be so perverted, than by its own proper 
force, it impelled large bodies of people to renounce 
every present enjoyment, and to settle in the dreary 
\s ilds of a far distant country. 

Q. Inform me in what manner it had this effect ? 
A. When England, by a very singular concurrence 
of circumstances, threw off the papal yoke, state poli- 
cy so predominated in the measure, that tlie conscien- 
ces of men were siili required to l)cnd lo the discipline, 
conform to the ceremonials, and assent to tht doctrines, 
which the governing powers established. Although a 
dissent from the church of Rome was considered as 
meritorious, yet a dissent from the church of England 
was held to be heretical, and an offence to be punished 
)y the civil magistrate. The human mind, awakened 
rom a long suspension of its powers by a Wickcliffe, 
fartlicr enlightened by an Erasmus and ?vIelancthon, 
and at length called forth into energy by the colUsion of 
those two ardent and daring spirits, Luther and Cal- 
vin, then began to bend all its attention tov/ards religi- 
ous inquiries ; and exercised all its powers in such pur- 
suits. Ilencc arose a vast diversity of opinions, which 
gave rise to numerous sects and denominations of 
Chiistiuns; but as the protestant establishment in Eng- 
land held it essential to preserve a unity of faith, those 
novel opinions oUaioed no more quarter there than un- 



272 MODERN HISTORY. 

der the papal power, which occasioned numerous emit 
grations to the western world. 

Q, What part of North America was considered 
belonging to England ? 

A. The eastern coast, comprehending a vast extent 
of country, which was then known by no other names 
than those of north and south VirginiA. Here the per- 
secuted religionists easily obtained a royal grant of a 
very extensive tract of land, whither they repaired, not 
to amass wealth, nor to extinguish the inhabitants ; but 
to subsist by industry, to purchase security by an ho- 
nourable intercourse with the natives, and to acquire 
strength, undc-r the auspices of freedom. 

Q. \Vere these professions wholly realized ? 

A. No ; a spirit of intolerance, in the early settle- 
ment in some pni ts, too mucli prevailed, and insidious 
arts were practised on the Indians, which soon excited 
their rancorous animosity, llie Spaniards had found 
the southern division of this vast continent, peopled 
%vith a pusillanimous and defenceless race of men, 
whom they sacrificed to their ambition and avarice ; the 
European settlers on the coast of North America, were 
not actuated by such a cruel and exterminating spirit ; 
they had juster notions of the rights of man. They also 
found the inh.abitants of this country possessing very 
different characteristics ; expert in the use of offensive 
weapons, sagacious, persevering; not insensible of kind- 
ness conferred, but implacable when offended, and ever 
gratifying their revenge, by means the most artful, con- 
cealed, and cruel. These Indians soon discovered a 
fondness for spirituous liquors; with which the artful 
traders were too ready to supply them. By the exces- 
sive use of these, their natural ferocity was increased, 
their passions inflamed, their best principles perverted ; 



UNITED STATES. 273 

diseases never before known intrcduced, their lives 
shortened, and their numbers greutly reduced. 

Q. Were the improvements in this country rapid, af- 
ter the emiycjrations of which you have been speaking? 

A. They were: no age of barbarism mvoived in ob- 
scurity and ignorance the early period of their exist- 
ence. Arts and sciences were cultivated before their 
v/oods were cleared. Their minds were enlarged with- 
out their manners being depraved. The fostering hand 
of the mother country, nursed tlie rising genius of the 
colonies, and an immense expanse of country taught 
them to contemplate on futurity with exultation. Their 
towns were built far from the din of war ; their peo- 
ple had multiplied amidst the blessings of peace ; their 
situation and employments rendered them robust and 
enterprising, without becoming sanguinary. The in- 
roads of the Indians were confined to their back settle- 
ments, and served to keep them attentive w ithout en- 
dangering the general safety. The apprehensions from 
the encroachments of the French were dispelled, 
soon after they had been seriously entertained, and the 
fortunate termination of that four years contest served 
to teach them to value a security which afterwards, fur a 
considerable time, was uninterrupted 



UNITED STATES. 

Q. WHAT first gave lise to the independence of 
the United States ? 

A. The British Parliament attempted to raise a reve- 
nue from the colonies by taxation, which having occa- 
sioned repeated remonstrances for redress without ef- 



ig74 MODERN HISTORY. 

feet, they were excited to resistencc, and joined toge- 
ther for their mutual defence. A Congress was held at 
Philadelphia, in September 1774, and was composed of 
delegates elected by the representatives of each pro- 
vince. A war soon after took place, and on the fourth 
of July 1776, Congress, by a solemn act, renounced 
allegiance to the king of Great Britain, and declared 
the Amerfcan colonies to be independent states. 

Q. Was the war still continued ? 

A. Yes, for nearly eight years; during which time 
great valour and magnanimity were displayed, and 
much hardship endured by the states ; each of which, 
except New-Hampshire, at different limes during the 
contest, became the seat of war. Great Britain, after 
expending immense sums of money and losing many 
thousands of her subjects, at length relinquished all 
claim to the dominion of the United States, and 
peace was established in 1783. France, early in the 
contest, acknowledged her independence and lent her 
aid. In 1778, a confederation had been entered into, 
but being found insufficient for the t^oveniment and se- 
curity of the United States, a new constitution was 
formed in 1787, and organized, in 1789. 

Q. What is tlie form of government in the United 
States ? 

A. Republican, and is vested in a President and two 
Councils under the denomination of Congress. The 
President and \'"ice President arc chosen for the term 
of four years by electors, who are appointed by the peo- 
ple for that purpose. The Senate or superior council 
consists of two senators from each state, who are cho- 
sen by the legislatures of the states, and continue in of- 
fice six years. The House of Representatives is- elect- 
ed by the people every second year. The legislative 
power is vested in Congress, thv'^ executive power in 



UNITED STATES. 275 

the President, and the judicial power in one supreme 
court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from 
lime to time ordain and establish. Tlie Judges of the 
supreme and inferior courts, hold their offices during 
good behaviour. Each state has also its peculiar form 
of government, consisting commonly of a Governor, a 
Senate, and House of Representatives, annually chosen. 
Q. Who was the first President of the United States ? 
A. George Washington, who had been comman- 
der in chief of the American army during the revolu 
tion. He was twice unanimously elected, and upon de- 
clining a third election, was succeeded by John Adams. 
Thomas Jefferson has been since elected, and is 
now in his second term of office. George Washing- 
ton died on the fourteenth of December, 1799, and 
in the 68th year of his age, universally lamented. 
Q. What are the boundaries of the United Slates ? 
A. They are bounded on the north by Lower Canada 
and the lakes, east by the Atlantic ocean, south by 
the Floridas and the gulf of IMexico, and west by the 
westeni boundary of Louisiana : they arc (exclusive 
of Louisiana) 1400 miles long, and from 700 to 1200 
broad, and contained at the last census taken in 1800 
5,305,G66 inhabitants. In the United States there is no 
national established religion, but all enjoy perfect liber- 
ty of conscience in worshipping the Almighty. The 
merchants of the United States extend their trade to al- 
most every part of the world. They export flour, grain, 
fish, beef, pork, live-stccl;, tobacco, rice, iron, indigo, 
lumber, flaxseed. Sec and import dry goods, hardwares, 
tea, coflec, sugars, spices, and wines. The number 
of slates, besides extensive ten-ilories not yet si^fficicntly 
populous to a\ithorize their admission into the union 
as additional states, is seventeen. Their names, with 
their population, capitals, chief towns, rivers, Stc. arc 
as follows. 



276 



MODERN HISTORY. 






V. 



OOOOOOOCOOOOOOOQ 



oogoqooooogogopjC> 



^ «^, o o "<*• o 



k^ t< '^j r- '^< O 



Q O 

d 






3 C O Z 

!2 c 2 > ■" 
• c «« o *" 



n c 






to 



c J.: fc t^ rt r:: 

^ • ■* rt ^ O 



W) 






o 




^ 




•»». 


' 


<3 




,V 




L^ 




V. 


j= 




4-1 


^ 


3 


■^^ 


c 




H 



C 



> 






c 



-' C u ^ ^ 






C O J3 -C 

> = -f . Ji ^ 

o 
U 



c 


HJ 


4-> 

I-, 










> 


> 


vh 


o 


lAI 




^ 




3 

r. 


O 

c 


S 


jS 


•-H 


Ui 


Uc 


U 



o 



C3 



ooooooooooooooooo 
ooooooooooooooooo 

00_0«H O M <^<i^^'^;~^*^0 O O O "t" 
00«or<^»oOOH-0'0'^C)Or^rf>ooc*^ 

M M *r C4 »0 c« O COOO '^^ CO M « C*T 






C ~ " 



3 ^ 



S2" 

'' u C rt 



K. c <« ^ c i^ •^ '^ "^ r*^'!-' T^ J— ry :- i- -c 



UNITED STATES. 



27 






5? 



c5 



x^ U U 

rt t; £ 

"C - !r* 

l-i c Ji 

^ s i 

;i^ HM^ u 



c 
c 
o 

O 



C 

o 
. c 






o 



rt 

. C 



U^ u 



O 



C 3 1 

3 o :i 



^-ci 



■ - ri 



S.1 

ii 

. - O 5 ,-J ,' 



"5 o 
O c 



22 






4-1 U 

C X 

3 



?-> 3 



rt rt 



C/3 






. - -ij -^ 






' "- i; 5 £ 

C rt c ^2 o 
rt > rt lij u 



rt 



rt -^ 
rt O^ C 

2- 9- "2 



4 s 

c 

rt 



oJ Q U 



n v•^^ 



rt o 



35 Cii yo O h 



- «-• 

r^ '■'5 

rt ii u rt 



S 

3 

n z: 
bo u 






t; 3 

•- bO 



r: c 



cS 



e 



3 
O 

E 



c 

3 
rt 

H 



2 • 
2cg 



bX) 

3 

c2 



{^ u u 






c -'^ 






bJO 



C 
-, ^ S -3 

rs be c t; 
2 ^ ■£ 'ii: 



u ^ 



■5Q h xT rt 



> J3 

O lU 



rt .ii -5 o ^ A 



Oh 



Wi-J2 SJ 



^- o ta .S - -^ 



3^ 



bO - -W 

3 -i4 C c. 

^ >- c 



O 



.S 



bO 






li o 



o 



l-l 



c 

3 



"-' .G C ■ 



be 
u 
3 



c s ? "^ -a 

o o «J " "" 
« 3 -^ 



C 
O 






li Ui 



G 
O 

tti 



U 



" -» a ^ t^ r •-• I. 



bc^ tf ^ j=: « . 

5 -,o w bo -*rj 

^ o 2 >-» 3 7^3 a 

u 4J rt ^< rj j^ Q 

t^^^-i c rt s 

rt - ^ "3 ~ -^ 
i«! u ^ O - o ^ rt 

5 rt i. bf 3 > 2 .s 

«J Ji ^^ 2 3 rt o J2 



U^ 



, , jv* ^ 3 rt Q ^^ 



o 



U 



(J o c c 



:a 



2;>^!^UZZ?i « S >2wOHUJo 



Aa 



278 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 



FEUDAI. SYSTEM. 



Q. AS government and laws are rendered more con- 
ducive to general happiness in modern, than they were 
in ancient times ; as the manners of society have ex- 
perienced a very great improvement in proportion to 
the wide diffusion of knowledge, and the faculty of 
communication; as na\igation has enlarged the inter- 
course of mankind by the discovery of a new world ; 
and as, moreover, the Kght of reformed Christianity 
has dispelled much of the darkness of superstition in 
some nations, and beamed witli splendour upon others : 
it must surely be a subject of pleasing inquiry, to in- 
vestigate the causes, which have contrilxiled to pro- 
duce such extraordinaiy, and such beneficial effects. 
Enumerate some of those whicli are the most striking 
in the history of Europe ? 

A. The establishment and abolition of the Feudal 
system, the crusades, the institution of chivalry, the 
reformation, and the revival of leaniing. 

Q. What gave rise to the first of these institutions ? 

A. The inhabitants of the north of Europe and Asia, 
who issued in great multitudes from their native fo- 
rests, durinj^ the fourth and fifth centuries of the Chris- 
liiui era, and who overturned the Roman empire, intro- 
duced a new species of government into the conquered 
countries, wluch is known by the name of the feudal 
system. 

Q. What was the plan of the feudal constitution ? 

A. Every freeman or soldier, for the terms were 
at that period synonymous, upon receiving an allot- 
ment of conquered lands, bound himself to appear in 
arms against the common enemy, whenever he should 
lie called upon by his commander. This military ser- 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 279 

vice v/as the condition upon wliich every one received, 
and the tenure by which he continued to possess, his 
lands ; and this obligation was esteemed both easy and 
honourable. Tlie same service, which a soldier owed 
to his officer, was due from an olTicer to his king. The 
king obliged tho:;e among whom he distributed the 
conquered lands, to repair to his standard ^^ith a num- 
ber of followers in proportion to the extent of their 
respective estates, and to assist him in all his expeditions. 
Thus a feudal kingdom conveys rather the idea of a 
military thrji a civil establishment. The victorious 
army taking their posts in diRerent districts of a coun- 
try, continued to be arranged undey its proper oflicers, 
and to be subject to martial law. 

Q. What was the principle of policy, upon which this 
singular establishment was founded ? 

A. Self-defence. The new settlers in a country wish- 
ed to protect themselves not only against the attacks of 
the inhabitants whom they had expelled from tlieir 
possessions, but againbt tlie more formidable inroads of 
fresh invaders. 

Q. Was not this system replete with many evils ? 

A. Yes ; the po verful vassals of the crown soon ac- 
quirc:d that laud as unalienable property, which origi- 
nally was a grant duiing pleasuie, and appix)prLited to 
themselves titles of lionour, as well as places of trust. 
In process of time they obtained the power of sovereign 
jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, within tlieir own 
domains ; they exercised the privilege of coining money, 
and carried on wars against their private enemies. 
Barons possessed of such enormous jx^wcr disdained to 
consider themselves as subjects, and the consequence 
was, that a kingdom was broken into as many separate 
priiicipalitics as it contained powerful nobles. Innu- 
merable causes of jealousy and discord subsisted be- 



280 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

twcen ll^icm, and gave lisc to constant wars. Every 
country in liiirope either wasted or kept in continual 
alarm duiinj^ these feuds, was filled with castles and 
places of strength, erected for the security of the 
despotic chieftidn, not against foreign invasion, but 
donnestic hostilities. The laws enacted by princes and 
magistrates cornmunded no degree of respect, and the 
right of retaliation and revenge, was considered as an 
inherent privilege of those fierce and haughty chief- 
tains. 

Q. What was the situation of the common class of 
society ? 

A. They v/ere reduced to all the miseries of slavery. 
The peasant was considered as tlie mere produce of 
the soil, and v.as transferred from one lord to anothor 
with the utensils and cattle of his farm ; and the king, 
stripped of almost every prerogative, and possessing 
little more than the empty title of sovereign, had nei- 
tli^r pov/er to protect the innocent, nor to punish the 
guilty. A general anarchy, destructive of all the com- 
forts, which men expect to derive from a state of soci- 
ety, prevailed. And to complete and confirm these 
evils, the progress of time gradually fixed and rendered 
venerable, an estaljlishmcnt, which originated in vio- 
lence, and was continued with every species of des- 
potism and injustice. A system which was as hostile 
to the intellectual as to the moral improvement of the 
mind ; which banished science and the arts, sunk 
mankind in gross ignorance, obscured the sacred light 
of Christianity in the thickest darkness of superstition, 
and was favourable only to the growth of those steru 
virtues which are characteristic of uncivilized nations. 

Q. What length of time did this deplorable state of 
society exist ? 

A. FroiTv the seventh to the eleventh century. From 
that era may he d «tcd the return of govcrnmentj lawfjj 



CRUSADES. 281 

aiid manners, in a contrary direction. The eftect of 
the Crusades and chivalry upon the feudal system 
was favourable; and in succeeding times a Aiu'iety 
of causes began to operate, which checked the licen- 
tiousness of tiie barons, softened the ferocity of their 
manners, luid finally put a period to their domination. 



CRUSADES. 

Q. STATE the particulars respecting the Crusades? 

A. Judea, or the Holy Land, was the highest object 
of veneration to Chriblians of the middle ages. There 
had lived the son of (io:l ; there he had performed the 
most astonishing miracles, and there he had sufiercd 
death for the sins of the world. His sepulchre was 
pi-oscrved at Jerusalem ; and as a degree of venera- 
ti**n was annexed to this consecrated place, nearly ap- 
proaching to idolatry, a visit to it was regarded as the 
most meritorious service, which could be paid to hea- 
ven ; and it was eagerly frequented by crowds of 
pilgrims from every part of Europe. The zealous 
travellers to Palestine were long exposed to insults, ex- 
tortions, and cruelty of the ferocious and hostile inha- 
bitants : but at length their complaints roused the Eu- 
ropeans to attempt their expidfcion. 

Q. Who was the first mover of this great project ? 
A. Peter, surnamed the Hermit, a native of Amiens 
in Picardy. Armed with the authority of pope Ur- 
ban H. he traversed the countries of Europe, and with 
rude but pathetic eloquence described the injuries he 
had received in lus pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre. 
He quickly kindled the ardour of persons of all ranks. 
The first converts to this active missionary became the 
warmest advocates for the expedition. And during its 

Aa 2 



282 CRUSADES. 

continuance, great numbers, chiefly consisting of pea- 
sants, ill provided with necessaries, and whose igno- 
rance magnifitrd the hopes and diminished the dan- 
gers of the undertaking, perished in the forests of Hun- 
gary or on the plains of Asia. Of the first Crusaders, 
300,000 are said to have fallen a sacrifice to their fa- 
naticism, before a city was rescued from the infidels. 

Q. Did not this discourai^c the Europeans ? 

A. No ; rather more strongly stimulated than deter- 
red by this catastrophe, Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; God- 
frey of Bouillon ; IIugh» count of Vermandois, brother 
to the king of France ; Raymond count of Thoulouse ; 
Ivobcrt duke of Normandy, the eldest son of William 
the Conqueror ; Bohemond and Tancred, who were 
likewise princes of the Norman race, set out upon the 
enterprise : all vere cl.iefs of high renown, famed for 
their prowess in arms, and stimulated by the same in- 
treirid and fanatical spirit. They were followed by their 
numerous adherents and vassals, whose services were ei- 
ther prou^pted by zeal and attachment to their respec- 
tive lords, or purchased with rewards and promises. 

Q. What wab the result of their expedition ? 

A. After sunVring various hardships and losses, the 
crusaders at length reached the walls of Jerusalem. 
Forty days were employed in the siege of the city, at 
the expiration of which, they took it by assault ; and for- 
getful of the lessons of mercy taught by their great Mas- 
ter, whose ensign they bore, they indulged in the rage 
of promiscuous slaughter, and put all the Jews and 
Turks, of every age and sex, to the s>vord ; and as a 
striking instance of the depravity and inconsistency of 
unredeemed natuie, while their hands and their wea- 
pons were reeking with the blood of their fellow crea- 
^J^es, they surrounded and pressed forward to the re- 
puted tomb of the Messitdi, and throwing their arms 



CRUSADES. 283 

from them, and prostralintj themselves on the earth, 
they embraced with rapture and tears the sepulchre of 
the Prince of Peace. Godfrey of Bouillon, the most 
worthy of the heroes of Christendom, was proclaimed 
king of Jerusalem. In imitation of his Saviour, he was 
crowned with thorns ; he rejected the appenda{j;es of 
royalty, and contented himself with the modest title of 
defender and baron of the holy sepulchre. His compa- 
nions, with the exception only of Tancrtd and his adhe- 
rerits, returned to Europe. 

Q. Did Godfrey hold peaceable possession of Jeru- 
9L\]cm ? 

A. No; after the departure of his companions, the 
Turks insulted the garrison, and the short reign of God- 
frey, which continued only for one year, did not give 
hinrtime to secure the stability of his ntw kingdom. 
Baldwin, his successor, surrounded by the exasperated 
Mahometans, was compelled to solicit reinforcements 
from the kingdoms of Europe for the support of his de- 
clining power ; and the fruits of this first crusade, were 
comprised within the little tei litory of Jerusalem, the 
dc minion of which was bounded by the term of four- 
score years. 

Q. Did the wars improperly tci-med the holy wars, 
cease at that time? 

A. No ; they continued to be recommended in the 
letters of the pope, and tlie sermons of the clergy, with 
unabated aixJour and zeal. St. Bernard, famed for his 
clo^iuence and enthusiastic piety, and the great influence 
which he had obtained amongst the people, flourished at 
the beginning of the twelfth century. Armed with the 
authority of the pope Eugene III. he rekindled the ex- 
piring flame of military fanaticism. ^Vith a voice, that 
was in every place obeyed without delay, he called the 
nation to the protection of the holy sepulchre. The fame 



284 CRUSADES. 

©f his pretended miracles and predictions removed eve- 
ry doubt of success from the minds of his credulous hear- 
ers; insomucii, that all who were able to bear arms 
Mere eager to join in the undertaking. 

Q. Did Bernard become a leader in the expedition 
which he so zealously recommended ? 

A. No; he pi'udently declined an appointment, which 
woidd eventually have exposed him to the ridicule, and 
probably to the resentment of his followers. Conrad III. 
emperor of Germany, and Louis \'I1. king of France, 
were the principal agents in the second crusade. The 
expedition took place in 1 147. Their cavalry was com- 
posed of 110,000 knij^hts, iuid their immediate attend- 
ants ; and if even the li.^ht-armed troops, the women 
and children, the priests and monks, be excluded from 
the nu'.nber of their tHeciive forces, their number will 
rise lo four liundred thousand souls. The f.dal errors 
ofiheir predecessors sug:^ested the safer expedient of a 
voyage, in preference to a march huo Palestine, and 
the sea-ports of Genoa, Pisa, and ^'enice, were from this 
time freciacnted by the crusaders for that purpose. In 
the Italian states they found more cultivated manners, 
and greater knowl'jd;j;e than their own country could 
boast; so that in them, as well as in the metropolis of 
the east, the most strikinj^ examples of civilizaiton and 
refinement were furijished to these rude adventureis. 

Q. What was the event of this enterprise ? 

A. U proved more disastrous to tlie cause of the cru- 
saders, than their first expedition. Manuel, the empe- 
ror of the Greeks, is accused by his own subjects j of 
givin"- intelligence of their plans to the Turkish sultan, 
and of providing tliem with treacherous guides. And 
the conduct of the Christian leaders was dictated by no 
sound policy, or vigorous co-operation. Louis of France 
had scarcely passed the Bosphorus, when he was met by 



CRUSADES. 285. 

the returning- emperor, "vvho had lost tlie greatest part^ 
of his army in a battle on the banks of the Meander. 
The kin.i^ of France advanced through the same coun- 
try to a similar fate ; and was glad to shllter the relics 
of his army in the sea-port of Sataiia. At Jerusalem 
these unfortunate monarchs met to lament their sad re- 
verse of fortune. Their martial trains, the slender 
remnants of mighty armies, were joined to the Christi- 
an powers of Syria ; and a fruitless siege of Damascus, 
was the final effort of the second crusade. 

Q. By whom was the third crusade undertaken ? 

A. By Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, 
and the kings of England and I ranee, and was most re- 
markable for the victories of Saladin, tlie temperate, and 
generous chief of the Saracens. His life exhibited a 
series of actions, which his rivals in arms would have 
done Well to have imitated, and which, far frum dis[.;rac- 
ing, would have reflected honour upon their characters, 
lie appears not to have been deficient either in literature 
or science ; and, in the progress of his conquests, he 
' respected the arts. When he retook Jerusalem, he 
treated his captives not only with clemency, but even 
with kindness. 

Q. Was not Uiciiard of England also distinguished 
for his military prowess ? 

A. Yes ; he displayed on all occasions of danger and 
enterprise, the most heroic courage ; but he was oblig- 
ed to conclude a truce ^^ith Saladin, in consequence of 
I'hilip of France taking advantage of his absence, and 
invading his territories in Normandy. Saladin was al- 
lowed to retain possession of Jerusalem on condition 
that the holy sepulchre should be open to the visits of 
('hristian pilgrims without molestation or tribute. Rich- 
ard embarked for Europe to endure a long captivity, 
aud find an early grave j and the space of a few months 



286 CRUSADES. 

afier his dcpdilure from the holy Iiind tcrmuiated the? 
life of Saludin. 

Q. Whiil was the luimber of these crusades ? 

A. Historians have recorded the details of no less 
than seven, includinr^ a period of 175 years ; in v.hich 
time numerous armies were led to disgrace the Christi- 
an name in the cast. The two lust crusades were un- 
dertaken by Louis IX king of France, whose fleet con- 
veyed a wcll-tippointed and numerous army to the coasts 
of E'^ypt ; and there, after an ineffectual display of valour, 
he was made prisoner, with the greatest part of his no- 
bles. The king of I'rance was loaded with chains, but 
Ids deliverance, with that of many of his soldiers, -Was ob- 
tained by the restitution of Damietta, and the payment 
of an immense sum of gold. After sixteen years of re- 
pose this enterprising and bi",otcd monarch again em- 
barked from l>ance, and undertook the wild project of 
baptizing the king of Tunis. On thv; bavren sands of 
Africa, his army, exhausted by fatigue, and sinking un- 
der the influence of a burning climate, was quickly re- 
duced to inconsiderable numbers. Louis expired in 
his tent, and at the moment of his death, his son and 
successor gave the signal for retreat. 

Q. Where did the Christians resort after the loss of 
Jerusalem. 

To the city of Acre, about seventy miles distant, 
which became the metropolis of the Latin Christi- 
ans ; but to avenge the plunder of some Mahometan 
villages, and the murder of some Syrian merchants, the 
sultan Khalil besieged and stormed it, and 60,000 Chris- 
tians were doomed to death or captivity. The loss of 
Acre was in fact the loss of the Holy land j and the mc- 
Jnorable year 1291 terminated the folly, fanaticism, and 
unprofitable valour of the Christians in the crusades. 

Q. State the advantages which resulted from, these 
unfortunate v.ars ? 



Crusades. 287 

A. Rude and imperfect as the crusaders were, they 
could not travel throu;^h, and continue in so many inter- 
estinij countries with indifference ; or behold their vari- 
ous customs and institutions, without acquiring infor- 
mation and improvement. Among the Greeks they 
surveyed the productions of the fine arts, and the valu- 
able remains of antiquity, the magnificence of the east- 
ern court, and the models of extensive and curious ma- 
nufactories. In Asia they beheld the traces of the 
knowledge and arts, which the patronage of the Caliphs 
had diffused through the empire. Every object which 
struck their attention pointed out a far higher state of 
improvement than their own countries had reached ; eve- 
ry object, therefore, while it excited the wonderof them 
all, could nut fail to excite a spirit of imitation among 
those who were active and ingenious. As these new 
scenes presented themselves, their eyes were gradually 
opened to a more extensive prospect of the world, and 
they acquired new modes of thinking, felt a sense of 
new wants, and a taste .for new gratifications. 

Q. Were there not other benefits ? 

A. Ves ; various advantages which were neither fore- 
seen nor expected were derived from the crusades. In the 
course of their expedition they acquired a taste for the 
arts and sciences ; and the example of the Arabian and 
Syrian merchants taught them the value of trade and 
the use of several manufactures. In the superior refine- 
ments of Cairo and Constantinople, they discovered va- 
rious commodities worth importing into Europe. Erom 
this period is dated the inlroduclion of silk and sugar, 
which were conveyed into Italy from Greece and Er 
gypt, and the advantages which resulted from a more 
enlarged and adventurous traffic to the Pisans, the (je- 
nocsc and the Venetians, who laid the foundation of the 
modern commerciai system. 



288 CRUSADES. 

Q. What effect had the crusades upon property ? 

A. The most beneficial effects were visible in the al- 
teration which they occasioned, by the emancipation of 
vassals from the tyranny of their lords, and by increas- 
ing the independence of the feudal tenants. Many of the 
great barons, unable to support the expenses incurred 
by their expeditions to Palestine, sold their hereditary 
possessions. The monarchs of different countries took 
advantage of thesex)pportunitiesof annexing considerable 
territories to their dominions, and purchased them at a 
small expense. The fiefs also of barons who died in the 
holy wars without heirs, reverted to their respective so- 
vereigns. By these possessions the royal power increas- 
ed in proportion as that of the nobility declined. 

The great cities of Italy, which had beglm to turn 
their attention towards commerce, were impatient to 
shake off the yoke of their insolent lords, and to estab- 
lish such government, as would make property secure, 
and the exercise of industry safe and easy. They pur- 
chased or extorted large immunities and grants from 
the emperors of Germany ; and other countries, parti- 
cularly France, followed their example. The great ba- 
rons were eager to lay hold of this new expedient for 
raising money, by the sales of charters of independence 
and enfranchisement to the towns within their domains ; 
and, in order to procure immediate relief for their exi- 
gencies, disregarded the consequences which might re* 
suit from the establishment, and the ascendancy of mu- 
nicipal power. Thus commenced the privileges grant- 
ed to corporations, and the rights acquired by commu- 
nities of citizens. The benefits which accrued to the 
public at large by these concessions, were of the high- 
est importance, as they were favourable to regularity 
and good order, to the extension of freedom, and the 
exertions of diligence ; the more exact and uniform ad- 



CHIVALRY. 289 

ministration of justice, and the comfort and happiness 
of the inferior classes of society. 



CHIVALRY. 

Q. WHAT is chivalry ? 

A. Chivalry, although commonly considered as a 
^Yhimsical institution, the result of caprice, and the 
source of extravagance ; and althoug hin Spain, under 
the influence of a romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a 
series of wild and extravagant adventures which have 
. been deservedly ridiculed ; yet it was an institution 
which naturally arose from the state of society in those 
times, and had a very powerful effect in alleviating the 
evils of the feudal system, and refining the manners of 
the European nations. In times when robbery and op- 
pression universally prevailed, it supplied in many 
instances, although imperfectly, the place of law; and 
in the hands of valour was the instrument of humanity 
and justice. 

Q. When did this institution originate ? 
A. If chivalry be considered only as a simple cere- 
mony, by which the youths who were destined for 
military life received their first arms, the custom was 
known among the ancient Germans, and was established 
in France in the reign of Charlemagne, at the com- 
mencement oF the ninth century ; but chivalry, con- 
sidered as a civil and military institution, is as late as 
the eleventh century. France claims the merit of 
giving this institution its specific character, at the time 
when that Idngdom was recovering from the dis- 

B b 



290 CHIVALRY. 

orders which followed the extinction of the second race 
of its ir.onarchs. The royal autliority began again to 
be respected, laws were enacted, corporations were 
founded, and the numerous fiefs held by the great barons 
tinder the ^crown, were governed with greater regula- 
rity. It was in this state of affairs, that the sovereigns 
and the great lords were desirous of strengthening the 
feudal ties by adding to the ceremony of doing homage, 
that of giving arms to their young vassals, previous to 
their first military expeditions. Every gentleman who 
was designed for the profession of arms, was trained 
by a long preparatory course of discipline and ser- 
vice in some noble family, and was, during his youth, 
the companion of some warrior of renewn. 

Q. What were the ceremonies which attended his 
knighthood ? 

A. They were solemn and impressive ; they com- 
bined the rights of religion with the forms of feudal 
duty. The candidate for this distinction, accompa- 
nied by his sponsors and his priest, passed the night 
previous to his initiation, in watching his arms, and 
in the duties of prayer. The next morning he re- 
paired to the bath, the >yater of which was intended 
to serve as an emblem of the purity of his profession. 
He then walked to the nearest church, clothed in 
white garments, and presented his sword to the mi- 
nister officiating at the altar, who returned it to him 
with liis benediction. After taking the accustomed 
oaths to his sovereign, or feudal chief, he was invested 
by the attendant knights and ladies with certain parts 
of his armour. The sovereign then rising from his 
throne, conferred upon him, while kneeling, the honour 
of knighthood. 

Q. What were the advantages of knighthood ? 
- A. The privileges attached to it were numerous 



CHIVALRY. -91 

and important, and its duties arduous and indispensable. 
To protect the ladies was an cssentlui part of them. 
Incapable of takin^g- arm5 for th2 preservation of their 
prop2rty, and de^litute of the means to prove the pu- 
rity of their characters, if attacked by malevolence or 
slander, they would frequently, in those uncivilized 
times, when law and justice were silenced by violence 
and force, have seen then* lands become a prey to 
some tyrannical neij^hbour, or have had their reputa- 
tion blasted by the breath of calumny, if some knight 
had not come forward in their defence. To the suc- 
cour of the distressed, the protection of orphans, the 
emancipation of captives, and the chastisement of op- 
pression, he likewise dedicated liis sword and his life. 
Thus in t]i2 institution of chivalry were blended valour, 
humanity, justice, honour, courtesy, and gallantry. 

.Q. Were not the combined effects of these soon 
visible upon the manners of that martial age ? 

A Yes ; the horrors of war were softened, when hu- 
manity began to be esteemed the ornament of knight- 
hood. More condescension, aud more affability were 
introduced, when courtesy was recommended as the 
most amiable of knightly virtues. A rigid adherence 
to truth, and the most religious attention to every 
engagement, became the distinguishi:ig characteristics 
of every gentleman, because chivalry was regarded as 
the school of honour. The dispositions and sentiments, 
which this institution prodviced, were so deeply rooted, 
that they continued to predominate, long after the spi- 
rit of cliivalry had evaporated, and the institution 
began to decline and degenerate. Tlie love of action, 
the spirit of benevolence, and a more correct mode 
of thinking — ihe virtues wliich had cither given it birth, 
or been associiited with it, when once directed to ob- 
jects that fired ambition, and interested tlie affections, 



292 CHIVALRY. 

were not likely to be short in their duration, or partial 
in their effects, The refined assiduities of men natu- 
rally directed the attention of women to themselves, 
as well as to their admirers. The acknowledt^ement 
of the importance of the female character, produced a 
considerable improvement in female education. Thus 
gradually was the merit of the sexes raised, and they 
were better entitled to the estimation of each other. 
The men, quitting the insipidity of artificial com- 
pliment, and the hyperbolical style of passion, which 
had marked the intercourse of feudal times, became 
more attentive to simplicity and truth, more engaging; 
in their address, and softer in their manners. The 
women became sensible of the importance of support- 
ing a dignity of behaviour, of improving their talents 
for conversation, aiid of adorning the charms of nature 
with elegant accomplishments, and the graces of affa- 
bility and complaisance. Thus a great change of man- 
ners was effected by following up a leading principle 
of the institution of chivalry? and giving a conspicuous 
place to the female sex in the ranks of society. The 
passion of love purified by delicacy, Avas heightened by 
the pleasures of sentiment and imagination ; the sphere 
of conversaUoTi was enlarged and meliorated ; it gained 
ii'ioi'c propriety, more vivacity, more wit, and more 
variety ; social intercourse was divested of formality, 
and became regulated by the laws of true politeness, 



THE REFORMA.TION. 293 



THE REFORMATION OF RELIGION. 

Q. WHAT were the effects of the reformation ? 

A. There is perhaps no occurrence recorded in the 
annals of mankind, since the first publication of Christi- 
anity, which has had so considerable an influence in 
vindicatin,:^ the ri:^hts of conscience, in liberaun.5 the 
powers of tlie mind from the tyranny of superstition, 
and in the promotion of general knowledge, as the re- 
fo'ination of reli.:^ion in the sixteenth century. Pre- 
vious to tliis event, all Europe bowed beneath the 
yoke of the church of Rome, and trembled at the 
name of her sovereigns. The laws, which were is* 
sued from the Vatican, held emperors, kin^^s, and all 
their subjects, in the chains of obedience, or rather 
slavery ; and to resist their autliority, or to examine 
their reasonableness, required a vigor of understanding-, 
and an energy of character, of which for many ages 
few examples were to be found. 

Q. Who was the first most noted reformer ? 

A. Martin Euther ; born at Eisleben in Saxony, m 
in 1483. He first devoted himself to a monastic life in 
a convent of Augustine friars, and afterwards was ap- 
pointed by Frederick, elector of Saxony, professor of 
philosophy and theology in the new university of 
Witemberg. Having found a copy of the bible, 
which had long been neglected, in the library of his 
convent, he abandoned all other pursuits, and devoted 
himself to the study of the scripture. The light of 
truth beamed on his mind — he saw that Christianity 
was not to be iear;.e:i from the writings of the school- 
men, or the decrees of c;eneral councils j but from the 

B b 2 



•294f THE REFORMATION. 

authority of tlu: sacred writings alone, uncontaminatca 
by the inventions of men. An opportunity was soon 
offered him of shewing his zeal for truth, and his ar- 
dour for its propagation. The Dominican monks were 
at that time employed by pope Leo X. to sell indulgences 
for all offences and crimes, for the purpose of recruit- 
ing his exhausted treasury. Luther, Avith great bold- 
ness of manner, and strength of argument, preached 
against the irregularity of their lives, and the vicious 
tendency of their doctrines. The more he examined 
the claims of the church of Komc to its empire over 
ihe reason and conscience of mankind, the more he 
ascertained their weakness. The discovery of one er- 
ror naturally led him to the detection of others ; and 
from refuting the extravagant tenets concerning in- 
dulgences, he proceeded to expose such as were main- 
tained respecting pilgrimai^cs and penances, the inter- 
cession and worship of saints, the abuses of auricular 
conftssion, and many other doctrines which have no 
foundation in scripture. 

Q. AVliat were the effects of his arguments ? 

A. They made a deep impression upon his hearers> 
and his fame was soon spread not only through Ger- 
many, but various other parts of Europe. At the same 
time that by his sermons he was diffusing the principles 
of the reformation ; nothing proved more fatal to 
the interests of the church of Home, or more sub- 
versive of its opinions, than his translation of the bible 
into the German language. The great advantages 
l^hich resulted from this translation, encouraged the 
advocates for the reformation in other countries to 
follow this example, and by publishing versions in 
their respective languages, they materially promoted 
the general cause- 



THE REFORMATION. 295 

Q. Were there not some who preceded Luther, that 
vrere advocate-s for the reformation, and others uho 
were hiscotemporuries, that gave him important assist- 
ance ? 

A. Ves ; Waldus, in the twelfth century, Wickliff 
in the fourteenth, ancl Huss in the fifteenth, inveiarhed 
against the errors of popery witli great boldness ; and 
Mehmcthon, famed for his genius, learning, and piety, 
uas the author of the confession of Augsburg, presented 
by the protestants to the emperor Charles V. at the 
diet held in that place. 13ucer introduced the doctrines 
of Luther into the imperial cities upon the Rhine ; and 
OlaUS disseminated them with equal zeal in Sweden, 
his native country. Zuinglius and Calvin, not inferior 
to Luther in zeal and intrepidity, were active in Switzer- 
land ; arid however they disagreed in their doctrines, 
and whatever diiTcrence marked some of their opinions, 
thc-y firmly unitjd in the promotion of this great and 
perilous design. 

Q. What causes led to the success and popularity of 
the reformed opinions ? 

A. There were many M'hich contributed to this eflfect. 
The schisms in the churcli of Rome, the profligate 
characters of the popes, and the dissolute lives and 
intolerant dispcjiitioijs of the clergy, had made the 
people disgusted >\ith an establislimcnt, which under 
the mask of religion not only encouraged immorality, 
but granted indulgences for great and flagrant crimes. 
The recent invention of printing gave rapid circulation 
to the writings of the reformers, and particularly to the 
various versions of the bible , and the revival of learning 
conduced to open the minds of men to free inquiry 
and critical researches. But the great cause into which 



296 THE REFORMATION'. 

all the rest may be resolved, was the supreme dircctioil 
of Divine Providence, which at this period, shed tiic 
beams of truth upon a lon^-ben"u];hted world. 

Q. "NV^iiat cficct hud the reformation upon the sove- 
reign pontiffs. 

A. It not ojily narrowed their dominions, but obliged 
tliem to adopt a different mode of conduct, and to rule 
by new maxims of policy. Their behaviour was bent 
to the urgency of the times : from having been long 
tyrannical and imperious, tliey becimc condescending, 
gracious, and mild. Since the reformation, they have 
continued to govern rather by address and manage- 
ment, than by doipo'ic authority ; and such has been 
the great decline of their power, that from wielduig 
the sceptre of Europe, and being tlie arbiters of all 
its aflfiiirs, they have bcjn reduced to a levol witii the 
petty princes of Italy and Ciermany. 

Q. Wsls not literature and the sciences promoted in 
the Romisli clunxh, by the reformation ? 

A. Yes ; it was found important to combat the refor- 
mers with their own weapons, and to efTace^he asper- 
sions, which they threw upon the ignorance and licen- 
tiousness of the Papists. Hence the attention of the 
Romish clergy iias been directed to the cultivation of 
useful and elegant learning, to a degree unknown in 
former ages ' 

Q. Was there not a similar change in their morals ?• 

A. Yes; they found it was necessary to silence the 
clamour of their enemies, by a sfip^rior propriety of 
conduct. They endeavoured to reach the standard, 
which the reformers, eminent for the purity, and even 
the austerity of their manners, had set iij). ^iuch were 
the beneficial effects of an event, which, in apolitical as 
•well as r» li ">us point of view, is a distinguished ob- 
iect of regard and admiration. I'he reformation in its 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 297 

gradual advancement and repeated revivals, has vindi- 
cated the rights of reason and conscience ; has tauglit 
the duty, and diiTuscd the blessings of toleration; and 
while it has held forth the scriptures tljeniselves, as the 
proper and exclusive standard of religious opinions, it 
has disseminated the genuine principles of Christianity, 
purified the faith, improved the manners, and increased 
the virtue of mankind. 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

Q. WHEN did ihe revival of learninp: take place? 

A. Alfred the Great, of England, and Charlemagne, 
emperor of Germany, who flourished in the ninth cen- 
tury, shed a strong and vivid lustre over the age in ^vhich 
they lived. They encouraged learning both by their 
example and patronage ; but their endeavours were not 
sufficiently effectual to overcome the gross ignorance 
of their times. The schools, which they erected, were 
confined to churches and monasteries, and the contract- 
ed notions of the monks, who presided over them, ren- 
dered them wholly inadequate to the task of diffus- 
ing knowledge in any extensive circle. The reign of 
barbaricm and ignorance continued, witli little intermis- 
sion, till the learning, which the Arabians had introduc-. 
cd into Spain, began to spread through the rest of Eu- 
rope. 

Q. What did this learning principally consist in ? 

A. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, chemistry, me-^ 
dicine and the philosophy of Aristotle. Several enlight- 
ooed scholars, who had studied under these Arabians, 



298 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

undertook atthebcg-inning of the eleventh century, the 
education of youth, particularly in the cities of Italy, 
and afterwards in those of France, England, and Ger- 
many. To the prevalence and permancy of these brjln- 
ches of knowledf^e, the establishment of the universi- 
ties of Europe, so general in the thirteenth century, 
was eminently conducive : some, however, were founded 
rather earlier ; and Paris, and Oxford, carry their pre- 
tensions to antiquity so hi.jh as the reigns of Charle- 
magne and Alfred. 

Q. Which of the great seminaries of education, me- 
rits the title of Mother of the universities ? 

A. Bologna. It was within her walls, during the tu- 
mults and the disorders of the eleventh century, that 
learning first attempted to raise her head. In tlie suc- 
ceeding agCj the almost incredible number often thou- 
sand students were assembled there, and each country 
in Europe had its resident, regents and professors. The 
studies of the civil and canon-law constituted the favour- 
ite, and almost the exclusive objects of application. Pa- 
ris directed the attention of her scholars to theology, and 
nearly with an equal degree of reputation. Oxford be- 
gan at this time to acquire celebrit,-, and to rival, or lea- 
ther to surpass its cotemporary universities in the abi- 
lity of its professors, and the concourse of its numljers ; 
for in 1340, according to the historian Speed, they 
amounted to not less than 30,000. Many other uni- 
vcrsities were not long after founded, particularly in Ita- 
ly and France. 

Q. What were the reigning subjects in these semi- 
naries ? 

A. Logic and scholastic divinity. The works of Aris* 
totle were perused with the greatest avidity ; and the 
disquisitions of the commentatoi-s upon his di^.lectics, 
were so favourably received, th.at their authors almo'iC 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 299 

totally eclipsed the fame of their great master him- 
self. The syllogistic mode of reasoning was applied to 
every topic, without discrimination, as tlie best instru- 
ment in the hands of a subtle disputant to frame the 
most specious argument, and to perpkx the plainest 
truths. To make nice distinctions, between one word 
and another, to separate subjects by infinite divisions, not 
as the real nature of things, but as fancy suggested ; 
and to draw conclusions which had no moral whatever, 
were the incessant pursuits of the schoolmen. 

Q. Who were the most celebrated pf these dispu- 
tants ? 

A. Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas 
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus : — And while an attachment 
to the ceremonial and ritual observances of the church 
of Rome, and the most implicit subserviency to its 
edicts, and the decrees of its councils, usurped the place 
of obedience to pure and practical Christianity ; the bul- 
ky volumes of these schoolmen filled every library, and 
exercised the understanding of every student. Tiiese 
were the speculations, which, however dry in pomt of 
style, and unimproving in point of matter, as they were 
patronized by the dignitaries of the church, and pursued 
by men of strong and vigorous minds, engrossed for 
centuries, the whole attention of universities, interested 
courts, and were celebrated in every part of Europe. 

Q. When do we discover the first dawnings of mo- 
dern literature ? 

A. In the cultivation of the language of Provence, and 
the rude productions of l!ie Ti'oubadours. The first of 
this order, whose name stands recorded, was William 
count of Poitou, a nobleman, who distinguished himself 
by his proAvess in the crusades. IMany of the men of 
rank, who embarked in the first expedition to tiie holy 
land, were of that number. And however excepti- 



300 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

onable such writings are justly considered in the pre- 
sent day, their romances, composed upon the striking 
subjects of gallantry, war, satire, and history, first awaked 
Europe from its ignorance and lethargy, amused the 
minds of men with grotesque and lively images and de- 
scriptions, and taught them to think, reflect, and judge, 
upon subjects of imagination. The Troubadours occu- 
pied the middle place between Gothic ignorance and 
Italian excellence ; and after this period, literature is 
indebted to them for raising the earliest fruits of Euro- 
pean genius, and inspirin;jthe moderns with the love of 
poetry. The commencement of the crusades, and the 
close of the fourteenth century, mark the limits of their 
celebrity. The romance which had its rise in the man- 
ners of chivalry, fell into disrepute as soon as that in- 
stitution began to decline. In the fourteenth century 
men of genius arose in Italy, who resolved to cultivate 
their native toninie, and to combine with its elegance, 
the charms of imagination, and the acquirements of 
classical learning. 

Q. What followed in the succeeding century ? 

A. The subversion of the Roman empire in the 
east, and the discovery of the art of printing happened 
nearly at the same period of time. After Constantinople 
was taken by the Turks, in 14 53, Chrysoloras, Deme- 
trius Chalcondyles, Johannes Andronicus, Callistus 
Constantius, Johannes Lascaris, Gaza of Thessalonica, 
and many other learned Greeks fled into Italy for shel- 
ter and protection. Into this country they conveyed 
the valuable works of their ancient writers, which had 
been preserved in the metropolis of the east. They 
were eagerly followed by the best Italian scholars, who 
quickly imbibed a taste for the g-races of genuine poe- 
try, eloquence, and history. A more useful and sublime 
philosopny was goon aaopted ; and the scholastic subtil- 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 297 

ties of logic, and the empty Speculations of metaphysics, 
Avere gradually superseded by the useful principles of 
moral philosophy, the maxims of sound criticism, and 
the acquisitions of elegant learning. 

Q. Was this new kind of erudition encouraged by 
the popes ? 

A. Yes; they gave it the highest degree of patronage, 
conceiving its encouragement as an excellent expedi- 
ent to establish their authority. Such was their liber- 
ality to scholars, that the court of Rome on a sudden 
changed its austere character, and became the seat of 
elegance and urbanity. Nicholas the Fifth, about 1440, 
offered public rewards at Rome for compositions in 
the learned languages, appointed professors in the 
Belles Lettres, and employed intelligent persons to tra- 
verse all parts of Europe in search of the classic ma- 
nuscripts, which were concealed in the libraries of mo- 
nasteries : and Leo X. was conspicuous for his ardour 
and munificence in the cause of literature. The beau- 
tiful and sublime ideas which the Italian artists had 
conceived from the contemplation of ancient statues and 
temples, were invigorated by the descriptions of Ho- 
mer and Sophocles. 

Q. Were not these improvements soon received 
in other countries ? 

A. Yes ; they spread their influence over France, 
England, Spain, and Hungary. The Greek tongue was 
introduced into England by William Grocyn : he was 
fellow of New College Oxford, and died about 1520. 
To Germany must be allowed a large and distinguish- 
ed share in the restitution of letters. And the me- 
chanical genius of Holland added, at an auspicious mo- 
ment, to all the fortunate events in favour of science, 
an admirable invention, for to that country the world 
is indebted for the discovery of the art of printing-, 
, ■ C c 



298 THE UEViVAL OF LEARNING. 

The oiiginal inventor was Laurentius John Coster of 
Jrlaerlem, wlio made his first essay v. ith wooden types 
about the year 1450. 

Q. Did the art of printing soon spread through Eu- 
rope ? 

A. Yes ; it passed to Rome in 1463, and the Roman 
type was in a sliort time brou;:;ht to great perfection, 
At the close of the sixteenth century, various editions of 
books in Syriac, Arabic, Persian and Armenian cha- 
racters, were published. This admirable discovery was 
made at a period the most favourable to its reception 
and improvement. Not only a taste for polite learning 
began to be fashionable in ihe fifteenth century, but ma- 
ny persons of the first rank in several parts of Europe, 
and particuhirly in Italy, distinguished themselves 
by their love of letters, and their patronage of eminent 
scholars. As books were thus multiplied, a taste for 
reading became more general ; and it is very remark- 
able, that tlic refoi mation of religion, and the revival of 
classical learning, were reciprocally advantageous ; they 
reflected mutual light and afTorded mutual assistance. 

Q. Was not the dawn of the reformation in Eng- 
land obscured by the bigotry of the sanguinary Mary ? 
A. Yes ; and there were few circumstances in her 
reign favourable to the growth of polite erudition. It 
is pleasing however to select one event from the cala- 
mitous history of her tim.es, vrhich happily concurred 
with some preceding establishments to diffuse classical 
knowledge. In 155 i, Trinity college in Oxford was 
founded by Sir Thomas Pope ; who in the constitution 
of this society principally inculcates the use and necessi- 
ty of classical literature, and recommends it as the 
most important and leading object in his system of 
academical study. In the subsequent reign of Eliza- 
beth, an accurate acquaintance with the phrases and all 



THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 299 

the peculiarities of the aiicieiit poets, lilotoriaiis, and 
orators, vv'as made an indkpensable raid almost the 
principal object in the education, not only of a genile- 
man, I)ut even of a lady. Auiciig the females of higli 
distinctiun, who asph'ed to the rcnutaticii cf clasbi' 
cal scholars^ the queen herself, ar.d the beautiful and 
unfcrtuniitc lady Jane Cirty, who had f.dlcna victim to 
the cruelty of queen Mary, were the morA conspicuous, 

Q. Did not this fashion exhibit itself in many ludi- 
crous extravagancies ? 

A. Yes ; it was conspicuous in various publications, 
in the shows and p:i^e:.nts exliibited durin.^- the progress 
of the queen through different parts of her dominions, 
and in the entertainments held in honour of her, where- 
in emblems allusive to classical mythology were con- 
stantly introduced. A relish, however, for reading was 
first excited in her reii^n, by the numerous translations 
of the Greek and Roman authors, and of Italian tales 
into English ; and the works of the writers who flourish- 
ed in the reign of queen Ann, particularly Addison, Swift, 
and Dryden, divested learning of its stiffness, revived a 
just taste for the classics, and had great influence in mak- 
ing the perusal of books a popular anmsement. Since 
that time, books of all hinds, in every civilized country, 
have been pi'oduced, and the press has supplied the 
means of niultiplyinr;; them to a degree which exceeds 
the power of calculation. 

Q. Ir, not the press subject to great abuse ? 

A. Yes ; it is too frequently made the instrument for 
the propa.^ation of insignificant^ licentious, and pernici- 
ous works, destructive to morals and hostile to religion. 
It has perhaps done more mischief by the diffusion of 
the principles of anarchy and atheism in the present age, 
tlian the sword or the cannon ; hut, happily for mankind, 
the antidote grows in the s.^mc soil, where the poison 



3C0 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

sprinc;s up in such luxuiiance. Let us consider what 
the presB has effected, and what it may still produce for 
the advantac^e, tlic instruction, and the delight of man- 
kind. Its benLfita arc as extensive as they are various. 
It Is, the safeguard of liberty, when used to protect the 
constitution against the cibals of party. It is the t.lly of 
religion, when it supplies the world with the productions 
of the learned and the pious, who labour to disseminate 
the precepts of genuine Christianity. It furnishes the 
means of rational improvement and amusement in the 
houi^ of leisure and of sickness ; communicates instruc- 
tion to the young and entertainment to Ihc old, and. 
spreads these enjoyments far and wide, to every people 
of the globe. We have therefore sufficient cause to be 
thankful that we are born at a time in which we are res- 
cued from the gross ignorance that enveloped our ances- 
tors : when the light of pure religion and useful know- 
ledge is diffused around us, and when, provided that our 
moral improvement keep pace, in a due degree, with 
our intellectual proficiency, we may be virtuous as well 
as enlightened ; and under the inestimable blessing of 
liberty of conscience, may pursue in tranquillity, the im- 
provement of the understtUiding and the heart, so as to 
become useful a.s well as happy. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



Of Remarkabh' Evnita^ Discoverirs and Inven'Aons^from 
the Crea'.Um to the Year 1804. 



Befcie Cbrif. 

4004 The crestion of the world, ;:nd Adam and Hve. 

4003 'ihe birth of Cain, the firft who w as horn of woman. 

3017 Enoch for his piety, is tranfluted to hcavtn. 

23481 he old world is deftroyed by a deluge which contiriued 

377 days. 
Z248 The tower of Babel is built about this time by Noah's 

pofrerity, upon which God miraculoufly confounds their 

lanoruage, and thus difptrfcs them into different nations. 
a237 About this time, Noah is, with great prob^-bility, fupjiofed 

to havq parted from his rebellious ofTspring, and to have 

led a colony of fome of the more trainable into tiie eaft, 

and there cither he, or one of his fuccelTors to have 

founded the ancient Chinefe monarchy. 
!2234 The celeflial obfervutions are begun at Babylon, the city 

which firft gave birth to lear'iing and the fcitnccs. 
ai88 Mifraim, the fon of Mum, founds the kingdom of Egypt. 
192a The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves 

Haran to go into Canaan, which begins the 430 years of 

fojourning. 
1897 The cities of Sodom and'Gomorrah are deftroyed for their 

wichedncfs, by fire from heaven. 
1836 The kingdom of Argos, in Grcec"-, begins under Inachus. 
l8a2 Mijmnonj the Egyptian, invents the letters. 

c: C 2 



502 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Befor: Clrijl. 

1715 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flints. 

1635 Jofeph dies in F-gypt. 

1574 Aaron born in Hgypt; I490, appointed by God firft high 
prieft of tlie Ifraelitts. 

15 7 1 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and adopted by 
Pharaoh's daughter, who educates him in all the learnhig 
of the Egyptians. 

1556 Cccrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt, into Attica, 
and begins the kingdom of Athens in Greece. 

1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and begins the- 
kingdom of Troy. 

1503 Dv-'luge of Deucalion in Theffaly. 

1496 The council of Aniphidynns eftablifhed at Thermopylae. 

1493 C:admus carried the Phenician letters into Greece and 
built the citadel of Thebes. 

1 49 1 Mofes performs a number of miracles in Egypt, and de- 
parts from that kingdom, together with 600,000 Ifrael- 
ites, befides children, which completed the 430 years fo- 
jnurning. 

1490 Sparta built by Lacedemon. 

1 485 The firft fliip that appeared in Greece, was brought from 
Egypt by Danaus, who arrived at Rhodes and brought 
with him his fifty daughters. 

1480 Troy built by Dardanus. 

145a The Pentateuch, or five books of Mofes, are written in the 
land of Moab, where he died in the year following, aged no. 

1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental burning of the 
woods. 

1344 The kingdom of Mycenx begins. 

1326 The Ifthmian games inftituted at Corinth. 

1325 Egyptian canicular yearb-gan July 20. 

1307 The Olympic games inftituted by Pelops. 

^300 The Lupercalia: inftituted. 

1294 The firft colony came from Italy into Sicily. 

1264 Thefccond colony came from Italy into Sicily.. 

1252 The city of Tyre built. 

1243 A colony of Arcadians condudled by Evander into Italy. 

1225 The Argonautic expedition. 

1204 The rape of Helen by Paris, which gave rife to the Tro- 
jan war ending with the deftrudion of the city in 1 184. 

J 1 76 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teuctr. 

1 152 / fcanius builds Alba Longa. 

1130 The kingdom of SIcyon ended. 

II24 Thebes built by Boeotians. 

1115 The mariner's compafs known in China. 

jj04The expedition of Heraclidse into Peloponnefus ; the mi- 
gration of the Dorians thither, and the end of the king- 
dom of Mycenai. 

^ici The kingdom of Sparta commenced. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 303 

Before Chrijl. 

1070 The kingdom of Athens ended. 
105 1 David befieged and took Jerufalem. 
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies. 
10.5 The temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon. 
996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Redfca to fend to Ophir. 
986 Samos and Utica in Africa built. 
979 The kingdom of Ifrael divided. 

974 Jerufalem taken and plundered by Shilhak king of Egypt. 
911 The prophet Elijah flourilhed. 
894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos. 
884 Olympic games reflored by Iphitus and Lycurgui. 
873 The ait of Sculpture in marble found out. 
869 Scales and meafurcs invented by Phidon. 
864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, founded by queen Dido. 
821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. 
814 The kingdom of Macedon begins. 
8ci The city of Capua in Campania built. 
799 The kingdom of Lydia began. 

786 The fhips called Triremes invented by the Corinthians* 
779 The race of kiiigs in Corinth ended. 
776 The era of Olympiads began. 
760 The tphori eftablifhed at Sparta. 
758 ^vracufe built by Archias of Corinth. 
754 The government of Athens changed. 
753 Lra of the building of Rome in Italy by Romulus. 
746 The Era of NabonalTar commenced on the 26th of Fe- 
bruary ; the firft'day of Thoth. 
746 The government of Corinth changed into a republic. 
743 The firft v/ar between the Meffenians and Spartans. 
724 Mycenx reduced by the Spartans. 

723 A colony of the Meffenians fettled at Rhegium in Italy. 
721 Samaria taken, after a three years fitfge, and the kmgdom 

of Ifrael fmifhed by Salmanazcr king of Affyria, wh» 

carries the ten tribes into captivity. 
72c The firft eclipfe (;f the Moon on record. 
713 Gela in Sicily built. 

703 Corcyra, new Corfu, founder of the Corinthians. 
702 Ecbatan in Media hu.lt by Deioces. 
685 The fecond MefTenian war under Ariftonienes. 
670 Byzantium (now Conftantinople) built by a colony of 

Athenians. 
666 The city of Alba deftroyed. 
648 Cyrene in Africa founded. 
634 Cyaxares befieges Nineveh, but is obliged to raife the (lege 

by an incurfion of the Scythians, who remained maftefs 

of Afia for twenty-eight years 
624 Draco pubbfhed his inhuman laws at Athens. 
610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from the Nile to 

the Red fea,but was not able to accomphlh it. 



304 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Btfore Chriji. 
6c7 By order of the fame monarch, fome Phenlclans failed from 
the Red fea round Africa and returned by the Mediter- 
ranean. 

606 The firfl captivity of tlie Jews by Nebuchadnezzar, Nine- 
veh deftroyeci by Cyaxarcs. 

600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults the priefts 
of ]Memphis, acquires the knowledg-e of geometry, af- 
tronomy, and philofophy ; returns to Greece, calculates 
> eclipfes, gives general notions of the univerfe, and main- 
tains that an only fupreme intelligence regulates all its 
motions. ATaps, globes, and the figns of the zodiac, in- 
vented by Anaximande^r, the fcholar of Thales. 

598 Jchoakin, king of Judah, is carried away captive, by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, to Babylon. 

594 Solon made archon at Athens. 

591 I'he Pythian gr.mes inftituted in Greece, and tragedy flrft 
aiSlcd. 

588 The firfl irruption of the Gauls into Italy. 

586 The city of Joriifalem tahen, after a fiege of 1 8 mont^. 

581 The lait captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar. 

581 The Ifihmian games rellored. 

580 Money firfl: coined at Rome. 

571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a ficge of thirteen 
years. 

566 The firfl ccnfus at Rome, when the number of citizens was 
found to be 84,000. 

562 The firtl comedy at Athens adled upon a moveable fcaffold. 

55^ Cyrus the firfl king of Perfia. 

f^l'i I he kingdom of Babylon finifhed, that city being taken 
by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an cdiifl for the return of 
the Jews. 

534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews 

526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public li- 
brary firfl founJed. 

^^-^ The fecond edicl to rebuild Jerufalem. 

515 The fecoi:d temple at Jerufalem is finifhed under Darius. 

510 Hippias banifhed from Athens. 

509 Tarquin the VIl. and lafl king of the R-omans, is expelled, 
and Rome is governed by two confuls, and other rej-ub- 
lican magiflrates, until the battle of Pharfalia, being a 
fpace of 461 years. 

50f; The firfl alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 

507 The fecond cenfus at Rome, 130,000 citizens. 

504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which gave oc- 
cafion to the Porfian invafion of Greece. 

498 The firil dictator appointed at Rome. 

497 Saturnalia inflitutcd at Rome. The number of citizens 
150,700. 

493 Tribunes created at Rome J or in 488 



CHRONOLOGICAL TAELE. 305 

Before Chrlji. 
490 The battle of Marathon, September 28th 
.J 86 -(Efchylus, the Greek pcet, firft gains the prize of tra- 
gedy. 
483 Queftors created at Rome. 
481 Xerxes, king of Pcrfia, begins his expedition againft 

Greece. 
480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and the fea fight at 

Salamls. 
476 The number cf Roman citizens reduced to 103,000. 
469 The third MeiTenian war. 

466 The number of Roman citizens increafed to 124,214. 
458 Lzra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with the captive 

Jews, and the vtiTels cf gold and filver, &c. being fevcnty, 

weeks of years, or 490 years before the crucifixion of 

our Saviour. 
56The Ludi Seculares firft celebrated at Rome. 
454 The Romans fent to Athens for Solon's laws. 
451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the twelrc 

tables compiled and ratified. 
449 The Decemvirs banifhed. 

445 Military tribunes, with confular power, created at Rome. 
443 Ccnfor* created at Rome. 
441 The Batterijig Ram invented by Artemoncs. 
432 The Metonic cycle began July 15th. 
431 The Pcloponnefian war began and lafted 27 years. 
430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifhcs about this time. A 

plague over the known world. Malachi the laft of the 

prophets. 
405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lyfander, which occa- 

fions the lofs of the city and the ruin of the Athenian 

power. 
401 The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon. The 

thirty tyrants expelled from Athens and democratic govern- 
ment rcftored. 
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among the Greeks, 

believes in the immortality of the foul, a ftate of rewards 

and punifhmcnts; for which, and other fublime dodrincs, he 

is put to death by the Athenians, who foon after repent 

and ercdl to his memory a ftatue of brafs. 
399 1 be fcaft of Ledifternium inftituted. Catapults invented 

by Dionyfius. 
394 The Corinthian war begun. 
390 Rome burnt by the Gauls. 
387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and Perfians. 

The number of Roman citizens amounted to 152,583. 
384 Dionyfius begins the Punic war. 
379 The Boeotian war commences. 
377 A general confpiracy of the Greek ftates againfl: the Lace- 

dt:Bionians. 



506 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Before Chr'Jl. 
373 A great c.rtliquake in Pclopor.ncfus. 

371 The Laeedemoniaiis defeated by Epaminontlas at Lcuv5lra. 

367 Pru;tors cftabl'-fhed in Rome. The I>icinian law puffed. 

363 Epaniinondas killed at the battle of Mantinca. 

359 The Obliquity of the ecl-ptic obferved to be 23"^ 49' 10''. 

358 'I'he focial v. ar btgan. 

357 Dionyfius expelled from Syracufc 

A traiifit of the moon over Mars obferved. 

356 The facred war begun in Greece. Birth of Alexander the 
Great. 

343 Dionyfiis II. expelled from Syracufe. Commencement of the 
Syracufian era. 

338 Philip of Macedon, guins the battle of Chxronaca, and 
thus attains the fovcreignty of Greece. 

2)2 S Thebes taken and rafed by Alexander the Great. 

334 The Perfians defeated at Granicus, May twcnty-fecond. 

2,2,i They are again defeated at Iffusin Cilicia, Odtobcr. 

33 Z Alexander takes Tyre and marches to Jerufalem. 

331 Alexandria built. 

330 Alexander takes Babylon and the principal cities of th« 
Pcrfian empire. The calippic period commences. 

328 Alexander paffes Mount Caucafus and marches into India. 

327 He defeats Porus an Indian prince, and founds fevcral cities. 

326 The famous fedition of Corey ra. 

324 His family exterminated and his dominions parted by hi« 
officers. 

323 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon. 

315 Rhodes almoft deftroyed by an inundation. 

311 The Appian way, aquedu«fls, <Scc. conftrudled at Rome. 

308 The cities of Greece recover their liberties for a short time. 

307 Antloch, Selcucia, Laodicca and other cities founded by bo>- 
leucus. 

501 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipfus. 

299 The firft barbers came from Sicily to Rome. 

294 The number of effedlive men in Rome amount to 270,000. 

293 The firfl fun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Curfor. 

285 Dionyfius, of Alexandria, began his agronomical era on the 
26th of June, being the firft who found the cxadl folar 
year to conCil of 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes. The 
watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built. Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs 72 interpreters to 
tranflate the Old Teflament into the Greek language, 
which is called the Scptuagint. 

284 The fcundations of the Achaean republic laid. 

283 The college and library founded at Alexandria. 

482 The 'I'arentine wr.r begins. 

2oO Pyrrhus invades Italy. 

279 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 2*8, 222^ 

469 The firft coining of filver at Rome. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 307 

Before Chrijl. 

i6s The number of Roman citizens augmented to 292,424. 
264 The firft Punic war begins, and continues 23 years. The 

chronology of the Arundelian marbles compofed. 
261 A tranfit of Mercury over the Bull's horn ; the planet 

being in 23^ of y^, and the fun in 29^30' fS 
260 Provincial queftors eftablifbed at Rome. The Romans 
firll concern thcmfelves in naval affairs and defeat the 
Carthaginians at fea. 
255 Rcgulus, the Roman conful, dcf^^atcd and taken prlfonft" 

by the Carthaginians under Xantippus. 
252 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 297,897. 
247 Another cenfus. The number of citizens, 251,212. 
246 The records of China deflroyed. 240 Condufion of the firft 

Punic var 
240 Comedies firft a<Sled at Rome. 
237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufcs his fon Hannibal, at 

nine years old, to fwear eternal enmity to the Romans. 
236 The Tartr^rs expelled from China. 
235 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple of Janus 

fhut. 
231 Corfica and Sardinia fubdued by the Romans. The firft 

divorce at Rome. 
230 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Eratofthencs to 

be 23^51' 20". 
224 The Coloflus at Rhodes overturned by an earthquake. 
219 The art of furgery introduced at Rome. 
218 Commencement of the fccond Punic ys-ar. Hannibal paflcs 

the Alps and invades Italy. 
216 The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 21ft. 
214 Syracufe befieged by Marcellus. 

209 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 227,107. 
ao8 Afdrubal invades Itaiy ; but is defeated and killed. 
206 Gold firft coined at Rome. 
202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama. 
201 Conclufion of the fecond Punic war. 
194 Sparta and Hither Spain fubdued by the Romans. 
192 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 243,704. 
191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermopylx. 
190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the fpoils of 

Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury firft to Rome. 
188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the inftitutions of Ly- 

curgus. 
179 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 212,805. 
173 The Jewifti high-priefthood fold by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
170 Paper invented in China. The temple of Jerufalem plun- 
dered by Antiochus. 
169 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 327,032. 
168 The firft library credled at Rome. 
165 The temple of Jerufalem purified by Judas Maccabeus. 



308 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Before Chr'ijl. 
l6a Hipparchus began his aflronomlcal obfervations at Rhodes. 
l6i Philofophers and rhetoricians banifhed from Rome. 
150 The third Punic war commenced. 

146 Corinth deftroyed. Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rafed 
to the ground by the Romans. A remarkable comet 
appeared in Greece. 
143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon, conflfting of 

111,035 days. 
141 The Nuniantine war commenced. 
135 The hiftory of the Apocrj'pha ends. 
133 Numantia deftroyed by Scipio. 

124 A ccnfus at Rome. The number of citizens 390,736. 
105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans. 
102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Marius. 
88 Rome bcfieged by the chiefs of the Marian fadion. 
82 Sylla created perpetual didlator at Rome. 
69 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 450,000 
66 Cataline's confpiracy. 
^^ Julius Cxfar makes his firft expedition into Britain. Craf- 

fus defeated and killed by the Parthians. 
51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province. 
50 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 320,000. 
48 The battle of Pharfalia, between Cxfar and Pompcy, in 
which the latter is defeated. The Alexandrian library, 
confiding of 400,000 valuable books, burnt by accident. 
45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf. The folar 

year introduced by Caefar. 
44 Cxfar, the greatefl of the Roman conquerors, after having 
fought fifty pitched battles, and flain 1,192,000 men, !ss 
killed in the fenate houfe by confpirators. 
42 The republicans defeated at Philippi. 

31 The battle of AAium fought in which Mark Anthony 
and Cleopatra are totally defeated by Odlavius nephew 
to Julius Ca;far. 
30 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by Odtavius, upon which 
Antony and Cleopatra put themfelvcs to death, and 
Eg^'pt is reduced to a Roman province. 
29 A cenfus at Rome. The number of citizens 4,101,017. 
27 Odavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the title of 
Auguftus Caefar, and an abfolute exemption from the 
laws, and is properly the firft Roman emperor. 
19 Rome at the height of its glory. The temple of Jerufalem 
rebuilt by Herod. Agrippa conftrudled the magnificent 
aquefluvSts at Rome. 
8 A cenlus at Rome. The number of citizens 4,233,000. 
5 The temple of Janus ts (hut by A.uguflus, as an emblem 

of univerfal peace, and, 
Jesus Christ is born, on the 25th of December. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLli. Slit 

After Chrtji. 

I The vulgar Chriftian era commenced from January, t>ie 

Saviour of the vi-'orld being then live years of age. 
8 Jefus Chrift difputes with the doAors in the temple. 
14 A cenfus at Rome, 4,037,000 citizens. 

16 rvlathematicians and magicians expelled from Rome. 

17 Twelve cities in Afia deilroyed by an earthquake. 
27 Pilate made governor of Judea. 

29 Jefus baptized in Jordan by John. 
2il He is crucified at Jerufalem. 
■^}) St. Paul converted. 

39 St. Matthew writes his gofpel. Pontius Pilate kills himfelf. 

A conjundion of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars. 

40 The name of Chriftians firil given to the followers of Chrifi: 

43 Claudius Cacfar's expedition into Britain. 

44 St. Mark writes his Gofpel. 

50 London is founded by the Romans : 368, furrounded by 

ditto with a wall, fome parts of which are ftill obfervable. 
ijl Caradacus, the Britifh king, is carried in chains to Rome. 
52 The council of the apoilles at Jerufalem. 

55 St. Luke writes his gofpel. 

56 Rotterdam built. 

^9 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to death. 

— Perfecutes the Druids in Britain. 

60 Chrlftianity introduced into Britain. 

61 Boadicea, the Britilli queen, defeats the Romans, but is con- 

quered foon after .by Suetonius, governor of Britain. 

62 St. Paul is sent in bonds to Rome — writes his epiflles be- 

tween 51 and 66. 

63 The ads of the apoftles written. 

— A great earthquake in Afia. 

64 Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days; upon which began 

(under Nero) the firft perfecution againft the Chrifl:ians. 

65 Many prodigies feen about Jerufalem. 

66 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 

70 While the fadious Jews are dcftroying one another with 
mutual fury, Titus the Roman general, takes Jerufalem, 
which is rafed to the ground and the plough made to pafs 
over it. 

73 The philofophers banifhed from Rome by Vcfpafian. 

79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculanium deftroyed by an 

eruption of Vefuvius. 

80 The capitol and Pantheon at Rome deftroyed by fire. 
83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian. 

85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to proted the 
civilized Bxitons from the incurflons of the Caledonians, 
builds a line of forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde ; 
defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Grampian 
hills; and firft fails round Britain, which he difcovers to be 
an ifl&nd. 

Dd 



314 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

////.,• chr:j}. 

86 The Capitoline games inftltuted by Domltlan. 
88 The Secular games celebrated at Rome. 

95 The empire of the Huns in Tartary cleftroyed by the Chinefc. 
— The Evangelift John banifhcd to Patmos. 

94 The fecond pcrfccution of tlie Chriftians under Domitian. 

96 St. John the Evangtlilt wrote his revelation — his gofpcl 

in 97. 
103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province. 
105 A great earthquake in Afia and Greece. 
107 The third perfecution of the Chriftians under Trajan. 

114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province. A great earth- 

quake in China. 

115 Aflyria fubducd by Trajan. An infurredion of the Jews 

who murdered 200,000 Greeks and Romans. A violent 
earthquake at Antioch. 

120 Nicomedia and other cities fwallowed up by an earth- 

quake. 

121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all the South- 

ern parts of Scotland ; upon which the emperor Adrian 
builds a wall between Ncwcaftle and Carlifle ; but this 
alfo proving ineffeiftual, Poilius Urbacus, the Roman ge- 
neral, about the year 134, repairs Agricola's forts, which 
he joins by a wall four yards thick. 

130 Jerufalem rebuilt by Adrian. 

13 Z The fecond Jcwilh war commenced. 

135 The fecond J ewifh war ends, when they were all banlfhed 
Judca. 

139 Juftin writes his firft apology for the Chriftians. 

1 41 /\ number of herefies appear about this time. 

146 The worfti'p of Serapis introduced at Rome. 

15 2 The emperor Antoninus Pius ftops the perfecution againft 
the Chriftians. An inundation of the I'yber, and an 
earthquake at Rhodes. 

163 The fourth perfecution of the Chriftians under Marcus Au- 
relius Antoninui. 

166 The Romans fent ambafladors to China. 

16*8 A plague over the known world. 

188 The cap'tol at Rome deftroycd by lightning. 

191 A great part of Rome deftroyed by fire. 

ao3 The fifth perfecution of the Chriftians, under Severus. 

105 .-\ji earthquake in Wales. 

209 Severus's wall in Britain built. 

218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The courfe of the moil re- 
ir.arkable from eaft to weft. 

22 2 About this time the P.oman empire begins to decline. The 
Barbir'ans begin their irruptions and the Goths have an- 
nua! tribute not to moleft the empire. 

125 Mather icians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 

236 The fixtii oerfecution of the Chriftians under Maximin. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 3l5 

Afur Chrlji. ^ 

241 The Franks firft mentioned in hiftory. 
250 The feventh pcrfecution, under Decius. 
ijz A dreadful peililence broke out in Ethiopia, and fj>read over 

the world. 'Jhe eighth pcrfecution, under Gallus. 
253 Furope ravaged by the Scythians and Goths. 
158 The ninth perfecution, under Valerian. ^ 
260 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor, king of Perfia, and flead 

alive. 'Jhe Scythians ravaged the Roman empire. The 

temple of Diana at Ephefus burnt, 
a 61 A great plague throughout the Rom;:n empire. 
262 Earthquakes in Lurope, Afia, and Africa, and three days of 

d?.rknef3. 

273 The Romans took Palmyra. 

274 Silk firll brought from India; the manufaflory of it intro- 

duced into Europe by fome monks, 551 ; firft. worn by the 
clergy in England, Iji34. 

276 Wines lirfl made in England. 

277 The Eranks fettled in Gaul. 

284 The Dioclefian era commenced Auguft 29, or September 1 7. 

287 Caraufius proclaimed emperor of Britain. 

289 A great comet vifible in Mefopotamia for 29 day?. 

291 Two emperors and two Cafars marched to defend the four 

quarters of the empire. 
297 Alexandria deftroyed by Dioclefian. 
303 The tenth perfecution under Dioclefian. 
306 Conftantine the great begins his reign. 
308 Cardinals full began. 

312 Peftilcnce all over the E:'.ft. Cycle of indudlon began. 

313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edivft of Conftantine, wno 

favours the Chrillians, and gives full lil)crty to their religion. 

314 Three bifliops or fathtTs are fent from Britain to afiill at the 

council of Aries. 

315 Crucifixion abolifhed. 

321 Obfervation of Sunday enjoined. 

323 The firfl: general council at Nice, when 318 fathers attended 
au^ainft Arius, the founder of Arianifm, where was compof- 
ed the f.imous Nicene creed, which we attribute ti> them. 

328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from Rome to By- 
zantium, which is thereafter cr.lled Conflautinople. 

330 A dreadful perfecution of the Chriftians in Pwrfia, which kill- 

ed forty years. 

331 Conflantine orders all the heathen temples to be deftroyed. 
354 300,000 Sarmatians revolted from their mafters. 

341 The gofpel propagated in Juhiopiaby Foumcntiu!-. 
344 Neoc.-efarea ruined by an earthquake. 
351 "I'hc heathens firft called lagans. 

"338 An hundred and fifty cities in Afia aud Gr.cc: ovcrtyned 
by an earthquake. 



316 CHRONOLOGICAL rABLE. 

After Chrljl. 
360 Firft monaftery founded near Politicrs in France by Martin. 

363 The Roman cir.peror Julian, furnamcd the Apoftate, endea- 

vours in vain to rebuild the temple of jtrufalem. 

364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eaftern (Conftanti- 

nople the capital) and Weftern (of which Rome continued 
to he the capital) each being now under the government of 
different emperors. 

373 '^ be Bible tranflated into the Gothic language. 

376 The Goths fettled in Thrace. 

379 The cycle of Theoj liilus commenced. 

390 A fiery column feen in the air for thirty days. 

400 Cells invented by biH^op Paulinusof Campagnia. 

401 Europe overrun by the Goths under Alaric. 
404 Another irruption of the Goths. 

406 The third irruption of the Goths. The Vandal.-,, Alans, and 
Suevi, fpread into France and Spain, by a concefTion of Ho- 
norius, emperor of the weft. 

408 The Chriftlan religion propagatwl in Pcrfia. 

409 Rome taken and plundered by the CJoths, ^\.uguft 24. 
41 2 The Vandals begin their hingdom in Spain. 

413 The kingdom of Burgundy began in Alface. 

414 The kingdom of 'i'houloufe founded by the ViCgoths. 
417 Tiie Alans extirpated by the Goths. 

419 Afany cities in Palcftine dcftroyed by an earthquake. 

420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower Rhine, un- 

der Pharaniond. 

411 The falique law promulgated. 

4*6 The Romans reduced to extremities at home, withdraw their 
troops from Britain, and never return, advifing the Britons 
to arm in their oavu defence, and truft to their own valour. 

43a The Gnfpe! preached in Ireland by St. Patrick. 

444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns. 

446 The Britons now left to thcmfelves, are greatly haraffrd by 

the Scot? and Picls, upon which they once more make their, 
CGn:plairit to the Romans ^which they entitle the Groans of 
the Britons,^ but receive no affiftance from that quarter. 

447 Atfila furnamcd the Scourge of God' with his Huns ravage 

the Roman empire. 

4^9 Vortigern, king of the Eiitons, invites the Saxons into Bri- 
tain, againft tlie Scots and Picls. 

452 The city of Venice founded. 

455 'I'he Saxons having rcpulfed the Scots and Pi(5^s, invite over 
more of their countrymen, and begin to eftabliih thcmfelves 
in Kent, under Hengift. 

476 The weftern empire is finiflied, 523 years after the battle of 
Pharfali-i ; upon the ruins of v.'hich feveral new ftates arife 
in Italy and other parts, confifling of Goths, Vandals, Huns, 
and other barbarians, under whom literature is extinguifh- 
ed, and the works of the learned are deftroved. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 317 

After Chrljl. 
480 A great earthquake at Conftantinople, which lafled 40 days. 
493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths. 
496 Clovis, king cf France, baptized, and Chriftianity begins in that 

kingdom. 
5c6 The Jewifh talmud publifhed. 
508 Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Eritons. 
310 Paris made the capital af the French dominions. 

515 Conftantinople belieged by Vitalianus, whofe fleet is burnt 

by a fpcculum of brafs made by Proclus. 

516 The computing of time by the Chrillian era is introduced by 

Dionyfius the monk. 

517 rive years drought and famine in Paleilinc. 
519 A bearded comet appears. 

52^ The codex of Juflinian, the eaflcrn emperor, is publifhed. 

.534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa cor.us to an end, af- 
ter having continued 105 years. 

536 Tlie manufadure of filk introduced at Confl:intincplc by two 
Indian monks. 

'■40 Antioch deflroycd by the Perfians. 

541 Bafalius the lail conful cledlcd at Rome. 

542 Antioch rebuilt- 

543 ;\.n earthquake all over the world. 

^-^^o An earthquake in Paltfliue and Syria. The kingdom of 

Polan.d founded. 
551 An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great commotion 

in the fea. 
553 The empire of tlie Goths in Italy d'-ftroycd by Narfes. A 

great earthquake at Conftantinople. 
5J7 Another violent eartliquake at Conftantinople, P.omc, &c. 

A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and Africa, wliich 

continues near fifty years. 
568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy. 
369 The Turks firft mentioned in hiflory. The exarchate of 

Ravenna begins. 
575 The firft monarchy founded in Bavaria. 

580 Antioch dcftroyed by an earthquake. 

581 Latin ceafLd to be fpokcn about this time in Italy. 
584 The origin of the fiefs in I-rance. 

588 The city of Paris deftroyed by fire. 

589 Rome overflowed by the Tiber. 

593 Tb.e Gafcons eftablifhcd themftlves In the country called by 
their name. 

596 John of Conftantinople affumes the title of univerfal bifhop. 

597 A-uguftin the monk went into Er.gland with forty monks, 
599 A dreadful peftilencc in Africa. 

6c4 St. Paul's church in London founded. 

605 'J lie ufe of bells introduced into churches. 

606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the conccflions of 

Phocas, the emperor of the eaft. 
D d 2 



31b CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

After Chrijl. ^ / 

(i%l Muhomet, the falfe prophet, flies from Mecca to Medina, in 
Arabia, in tlie forty-fourth year of his a^c and tenth of his 
miniftry, when he laid the foundation of the Saracen eni- 
pire, and from whom the Maliometan princes to thii day 
claim cheir defcent. His followers compute their time from 
this era, which in Arabic is called hegira, i. e. " The Flight." 

628 All academy founded at Canterbury. 

6t,2 The era of Jcfdcgird commenced June r6. 

637 Jcruiulem is taken by the Saracens or followers of Mahomet. 

6-11 .Alexandria in Egypt is taktn by ditto, and the grand library 
there burnt by orvler of Omar their caliph or prince. 

643 The temple of Jeriifaicm converted into a Mahometan mofque. 

6^2) '^^^ Saracens now extend th.tir conquefls in every fide, and 
retaliate the barbarities of the CJothsand Vandals upon their 
poftcrity. They take Rhodes, and deilroy the famous Co- 
lofl'us. England invaded by the Danes. 

660 Organs firit ufed in churches. 

663 Glafs invented by a biiliop, and brought to England by a Be- 
nedi^iline monk. 

669 Sicily invaded, and Syracufc deftroyed by the Saracens. 

6!>'j The "Britons, after a brave llruj^gle of near 150 years, are to- 
tally expelled by the Saxons, and driven into Wales and 
Cornwall. 

6^3 The Saracens take Cartilage and expel the Romans from 
Africa. 

^co Cracow built, and the fjrft prince of Poland eledled. 

704 The firft province given to the Pope. 

713 The Saricens conquer Spain. 

714 France governed by Charles Martcl. 

718 The kingdom of Aflurias in Spain founded by Pclagio 
71 y ChrilHanity promulgated in Germany. 

726 The controverfy about images begins, and occafions many 

infurredlions in tiie eafttrn empire. 

727 Tax of Peter's pence begun by Ina king of WelTex. 
732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near i'ours. 
735 Inditution of the office of Pope's Nuncio. 

746 Three years pellilence in Europe and Afia. 

748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift began to 

be ufed in hiflnry. 
740 The race of Abbas, become caliphs of the Saracens, and 

encourage learning. The empire of the Saracens divided 

into three. 
752 The exarchate of Ravenna abolifhed by Aftolphus king of 

the Lombards. 
755 Commencement of the Pope*8 temporal dominion. 
762 The city of Bagdid upon the Tigris, is made the capital for 

the caliphs of the houfc of Abbas. Burials, which former • 

ly ufed to be in highways, pernjitted in towns. 
792 An academy founded in Paris. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 319 

After Chriji. 

794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne. 

797 Seventeen days of unuiual darknefs. 

8co Charlemagne king of France, begins the empire of Germa- 
ny, afterwi-rds called the weftern empire ; gives the pre- 
itnt names to tlie winds and months, endeavours to reftore 
learning in Europe, but mankind are not yet difpofed for 
it, beiiig folely engroffed in military enterprifes. 

801 A great eartliquake in France, Germany and Italy. 

807 January 31. Jupiter eclipfcd by the Moon. March 17, a 
large fpot 1>. en on the fun for eight days. 

8c8 The firil defcent of the Normans on France. 

i, 25 The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Benimula to be 

826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his fubjeds for be- 
ing a ChrilVian. The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon 
founded. 

832 Painter- banifhed cut of the eafhern empire. 

8;^6 The Flemings trade to Scotland for filh. 

840 The Scots and Pi^.s have a dccifive battle, in wliich the for- 
mer prevail, and both kingdoms are united by Kenneth, 
v»hich begins the fecond period of the Scotufh hiftory. 

842 Germaiiy feparated from the empire of the Franks. 

846 An eatthqua' c over the grtateft part of the known world. 

861 Ruric the liril prince of RulTia began to reign. 

864 The Danes begin their ravages in Kngland. 

867 Chriflianity propagated in Bulgaria. 

860 1-gypt becomes independent on the caliphs of Bigdad. 

872 Bells and clocks firil ufed in Conftantiiiople. 

873 France dillrcffed by locufts and peftilence. 

874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians. Scotland invaded by the 

Danes. 

875 A bearded comet appears in France. 

878 Alfred the Great, after fubduing the Danilh invaders (againft 
whom he fought fifty-fix battles b/ fe.i and land, compofes 
his boJy of laws ; divides England into counties, hundred?, 
ty things ; in 8^0 ereds county- courts, having founded the 
nniverfity of Oxford in 886 

880 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Albategni to be a3'^3 j' 

826 The Hungarians settled near the Danube. 

891 The firft land tax in England. 

895 The monaftery of Cluny founded. 

905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China. Rome taken 
by the Normans. 

911 The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved to be 23** 33' 30". 

912 The Normans eltabliftied thcmfelves in Normandy. 

913 The Danes become mafters of England. 
015 The univerfity of Cambridge founded. 
923 Fiefs cftablifliel in 1 ranee. 

925 Sigefroi elcdcd marquis of Brandenburg. 



320 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

/fler Chrijl. 
928 The marquifate of Mifiila cftabliflied. 
937 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation into feven kin^^ 

doms. 
941 Arithmetic brou<rht into rurope. 
ii()i Candia recovered from the Saracens. 
967 Aiitioch recovered from the .Saracens. 
969 The race of Abbas extinguifhed in Egypt. 
975 ^'ope Boniface VII. is dcpofed and banifhed for his crimes. 
977 Greece, Macedon, and Thract ravaged by the Bulgarians 

for ten ye.irs. 

'ihe Bolieniians fubducd by Otho. 

979 Coronition oath firfl ufed in Enghmd. Juries firfl inflituttd 

in ditto. 
985 The Danes under Sueno invaded England and Scotland. 
987 The Carlovingian race in France ended. - 
991 Tlie figures in aritlmieric are brought into Europe by the 

Saracens from Arabia ; letters of the alphabet were hitherto 

ufed. 
993 A great eruption of Mount Vefuvius. 
995 Kiighmd invaded by the Di-nes and Nor\vegi:\ns. 
Cj.jij Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective. 
999 BoUlbius, the firR king of Poland. 'J he obliquity of tlic 

elliptic obftrvcd by A.b<>ul W'afi and Abu lEimed to be 

1000 Paper madeof cotton ragswas in ufe, tint (.f linen rag* in li 70 : 

the manufactory introduced into England at Ueptford, I^J'IS. 
1002 The emperor Henry adumed the title of king of the Roma.-s. 
1OC5 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time in a new 

munr.er of architeiTiure. 
1006 A plague in I' urupe for three ycais. 
J007 A great eruption of Vefuvius. The obliquity of the e:li])tic 

obferved by Albatrunius to be 23° 33'. 
1 01 4 Suono the Dane bt eomesmaftcrs of England. September 28, 

alniofl; all Flanders laid undir water by a ftorm. 
1 01 J Children forbidden by law to be fold by their parents in Eng* 

land. 
1 01 7 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in Aqultain. 
1022 A new fpccies of mufie invented by Arttin. 
1035 Togrul-beg or Tangrolipix the Turkifli fultan, eflablifhed 

himfelf in Korafan. i he kingdoms of Caflile and Ar- 

ragon began. 

1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with various succefs, 

are about this time driven out of Scotland, and never again 
return in a hoflile manner. Smyrna dcflroyed by an earth- 
quake. 

1041 The Saxon line rcftored under Edward the Confeffor. 
1043 The Turks become formidable and take poffefTion of Perfia- 

The KuiTians come from S.ythia and land in Thrace. 
IOJ4 Leo IX. the firit pope that kept up an army. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 321 

/IJtcr Chrijl. 

loss The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the empire of the Sa- 
racens. 

1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant Macbeth at 
Dunfinnan, and marries the princcfs Margaret, fifker to 
Edgar Athcling. 

1 061 Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by a parlia- 
ment held in Forfar. 

1065 The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens. 

1066 The conqucfl of England by William (furnamed the Baf- 

tard) duke of Normandy, in the battle of Haftings, where 
Harold is flain. 
1070 The feudal law introduced into England. 

1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany and the pope quarrel about 

the nomination of German bifhops. Henry, in j'cnance, 
walks barefooted to the pope, towards the end of January. 

1076 Juftices of the peace firrt appointed in England. An earth- 

quake in England. Afia I\Iinor, having been two years 
under the power of Solyman, is from this time called Tur- 
key. 

1080 Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order of William, 
from a furvey of all the eftatcs in England, and finifhed in 
1086. The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his 
EngHfli fubjevHs •, numbers of whom fly to Scotland, where 
they introduce the Saxon or Englifli language, are pro- 
te(fted by Malcolm, and have lands given them. 

1086 The order of Caithufians ellablifhed by Bruno. 

1090 The dynafty of Bathineens or Aflaflius begins in Irak, and 

continues for 117 years. 

109 1 The Saracens in Spain, being hard preflcd by the Spaniards, 

call to their affillance Jofeph king of Morocca ; by which 
the Moors get polTeirion of all the Saracen dominions in 
Spain. 
1096 The firfl: crufade to the holy land is begun under feveral 
Chriftian princes, f; drive the infidels from Jerufalem. 

1098 The order of St. Benedi6t inilituttd. 

1099 Jerufalem taken by the crufaders ; Godfrey elecfled king of 

it ; and the order of knights of St. John inftituted. 
mo Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes, dies in Eng- 
land, where he had been permitted to refide as a fubjedt. 
I-,earning revived at Cambridge. Writing on paper made 
of cotton common a1)out this time. 

1118 The order of the knights Templars inftituted to defend the 

ftpukhre at Jerufalem, and to prote6l Chriftian ftrangers. 

1 1 19 Bohemia creeled into a kingdom. 
1132 The kingdom of Portugal began. 

1 137 The pandc<5l of Jullinian found in the ruins of Amalphi. 
1141 The fadions of the Guelphs and (Jibellines prevailed about 
this time. 



322 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLi:. 

/fur Cbriji. 

J 143 Tlic Koran tranflated into Latin. 

1 1 44 7'lie Peripatetic philofophy introduced into Germany. 

1 15 1 'Die canon law cuilevflcd by Crratian, a monk of Bologna. 

IT54 Chriflianity introduced into Finland. 

1 156 The city of Mofiow in RulFia founded. 

1 1 60 'ihe order of the Carmelites inftituted. 

11^)3 London bridge, confifting of I'; frnall arches, firft built of 

ftonc. 
1 164 The ' cutonic order of rtligious knights begins in Germany. 
II 71 J'hc (lynafty of f atcmite* endc*l in Kgypt ; the fovereigns of 

this country henceforth called v'^ultans. 
1 1 72 Henry H. king of England (and firft of the Plantagencts) 

takes pofl"?flion of Ireland, -which from that period, has been 

governed by an Englifh viceroy, or lord lit utenaut. 
1 1 76 England is divided by Henry into fix circuits, and juftice is 

difpenfcd 1 y itinerant judges. 

1 179 The univjrfity of Padua founded. 

11 80 Glafs windows began ts be ufcd in private houfcs in England. 

1 181 The laws of Ingland are digcfted about this time by Glan- 

ville. 
Jl8z Pojic Alcxan.ler III. coinpelLd the kings of England and 

France to hold the llirrups of his faddle when he mounted 

his horfe. 
1 1 83 7000 Albigenfts maflacred by the inhabitants of Berry. 

1 186 A conjundiion of all the planets at fun rife September l6th. 

The fun in 30^,.] ; Juplt- r in 2^3' -i; Veuus in 3° 49' ; Sa- 
turn in 8^ 6 ; Mercury in 4*^ lo' ; Mars 9*^ 8 ; tall of the 
Dragon 18 ',23'ii: 

1 18 7 Jerufalem taken by Sahdin. 

1192 J'he battle of Alcalon, in Judea, in which Richard, king of 
England, defeats Saladin's army, confifllng of 300,000 
combatants. 

1194 Dicu et mon Droit, firft ufed as a motto by Richard, on a 

vielory over the French. 

1 195 Denmark and Norway laid waflc by a dreadful tempcft. 
II98 Inftitution of the order of the Holy Trinity. 

I iCO Chimnies were rot known in England. Surnames now 
began to be ufcd firft among the nobility. Univerfity of 
Salamanca in Spain found'^d. 

1204 Conftantinoplc tak;n by the French and Venetians. 'Fhc 
inquifition eftabliflied. 1 he empire of Trcbizond cftablifhed. 

1208 London incorporated, and obtained their firft charter for 

cleding their lord mayor and other magiftrates from king 
John. The order of Fratres Minores cftablifhed. 'I'he 
pope excommunicates king John. 

1209 'Fhe works of Ariftotle imported fr.)m Conftantinople into 

Europe. The filk manufadure imported from Greece int« 
Venice. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 523 

Afttr Chrijl. 

I210 The works of Ariftotle condemned to be burnt at Paris. 
The emperor Otho excommunicated by the pope. Vio- 
lent ptrfccution of the Albigenfes. 

1215 Magna Charta is figned by king John and the barons of 

hngland. Court of common pleas eftcbliihcd. Orders of 
the Dominicans and Knights Hofpitallers founded. The 
dotflrine of tranfuhftantiation introduced. 

1 216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of Scotland excom- 

municated by the pope's legate. 
1220 Aftronomy and geography brought into Europe by the Moors. 

1222 A great earthquake in Germany. 

1223 A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared in Denmark. 

1226 A league formed againft the Albigenfes by the French king 

and many prelates and lords. 

1227 The Tartars, under Gingis-Khan, emerge from the northern 

parts of Afia, overrun all the Saracen empire, and carry 
death and defolation wherever they march. 

1228 1 he univcrfity of Thuuloule founded. 

1230 'I'he kingdom of Denmark diftrcflcd by pedilence. The 
kingdoms of Cafliile and Leon united. PrufTia fubdued by 
the Teutonic knights. Univerfity of Naples founded. 

1 13 1 The Almagofl of Ptolemy tranllated into Latin. 

1233 The inquifition, begun in 1 204, is now trulled to the Do- 
minicans. The lioufes of London and other cities in Eng- 
hnd, France, and Germany, ftill thatched with llraw. 

1238 The univcrfity of Vienna founded. 

1231; A writing of this year's date on paper made of rags flill extant^ 

1241 The Hanfeatic league formed. Tin mines diicovered in Ger- 
many. 

1245 -A clear redflar, like Mars, appears in Capricorn. 

1250 Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue. 

1 25 1 Wales fubdued, and Magna Charta confirmed. 

I2J3 The famous aflronomical tables are compofed by Alonfo 

king of Caftile. 
1256 The order of the Auguftiucs cflabliflied. 
1258 The Tartars take Bagdad, which finifties the empire of the 

Saracens. 
1260 The fcdl of Fhgellnntes appeared in Italy. 

1263 Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with 1 60 fail, and lands 

20,000 men at the mouth of the Clyde ; but they arc cut 
to pieces by Alexander III. who recovers the wftern ifles. 

1264 The commons of England firft fummoned to parliament about 

this time. 

1268 The Tartar? invade China. 

I26y The Hamburg company incorporated in England. The ob- 
liquity of the ecliptic oblerved by Cozah Nafirodni to be 
23° 30'. 

1474 The academy of Florence founded. 



324 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

After Chrijl. 

1273 The empire of thcprefent Auftrian family begins in Gtrnfta- 
ny. The obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by Cheou king 
in China, to 23° t,},' 2,9"- 

ll-jj^ The firft; commercial treaty betwixt England and Flanders. 

1279 King lidward renounced his riglit to Normandy. The mort- 
main ai5V pafTcd in England. 

1282 Lewellin, prince of Wales, defeated and killed by Edward 
I. who unites that principality to England. A great pefti- 
lence in Denmark. 8,000 rrench murdered at the Sicilian 
Vefpcrf.. Academy de la crufca founded. 

1284 Edward II. born at Carnarvon is the firlt prince of Wales. 

1285 Alexander III. king of Scotland dies, and that kingdom is 

difputed by twelve candidates, who fubmit their claims to 
the arbitration of Edward king oi England ; which L\ys the 
foundation of a long and defolating war between both na- 
tions. 

1290 The univerllty of Llfbon founded. 

1291 Ptolemais taken by the Tuiks. End of the Crufades. 

1293 There is a regular lucceflion of Englifh parliaments from this 

year, being the 2 2d of Edward 1. 
^294 Parliaments eftablifhed in Paris. 

1298 The prefent Turkifh empire begins in Bithynia under Otto- 

man. Silver-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great lux- 
ury. Tallow candles fo great a luxury that fplinters of 
wood were ufed for liii,hts. Wine fold by apothecaries as 
a cordial. The Scots defeated by the Englilh at Falkirk. 

1299 An earthquake in Germany. Spcdtacles invented by a monk 

of Pila. The year of jubilee iuftitutcd by Boniface VIII. 
1302 The mariner's compafs invented or improved by Giovia of 
Naples. The unlverfity of Avignon founded. 

1307 The beginning of the Swifs cantons. Coal firfl ufed in Eng- 

land. 

1308 The popes remove to Avignon in France for 70 years. 

1310 Lincoln's inn focicty eftablifhed. The knights of St. John 
take polTeflion of the ifle of Rhodes. 

1314 The battle of Bannockburn, between Edward II, and Robert 

Bruce, which eftablifhcs the latter on the throne of Scotland. 
The cardinals fet fire to the conclave and feparate. A va- 
cancy in the papal chair for two years. 

1315 Germany afflided with famine and peftilencc. 

1319 The unlverfity of Dublin founded. 

1320 Gold firft coined in Chriftcndom ; 1344 ditto in England. 

An earthquake in England 
1323 A great eruption of Mount Etna. 

1325 The firft treaty of commerce between England and Vcuicc 
1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne. 
1332 The pope accufed of hercfy. 



(i^HRONOLOGlCAL TABLE. ; £25 

.//7.r CLyijl. 

j;,j6 Two Brabant weavers fettle at Ycrk, whicli,fays EdwarJ III. 

Hiay prove of great benefit to us and our fubjciils. 
1337 The lirft comet whofe courfe is ut."fcribcd with an aftrono- 

mical cxadlncfs luircpe infefted hy locufts. 
1340 Heralds college jnftituted in England. -Copper money Crft 

ufcd in ^'cotland and Ireland. 
J 344 The firft creation to titles by patents ufed by Edward III. 
I'?45 Edward III. has four pieces of cannon, v«"hich gained Iiini the 

battle of Creffy, 
1347 The battle of Durham, in v/hich David, king of the Scots, is 

taken prifoner. 
T349 The order of the Garter inflituted in England by Edward 

III. altered in 1557, and confifts of 26 knights. 
135 a The Turks firft enter Europe. 

1353 Afia and Africa defolated by locufts. 

1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as in England. 
1336 The brittle of Poictiers, in which king John of France and his 

fon'are taken prifoner? by Edward the Black Prince. 

1357 Coals firft brought to 1-ondon. 

1358 Arms of England and I'rance firft quartered by Edward III. 

Univerfity of Cologne founded. Tamerlane began to ' 
reign in Perfia. 

1362 The law of pleadings in England changed from French to 
Englifli as a favour of Edward HI. to his people. The mi- 
litary order of Janizaries eftabliflied among the Turks. 

1365 Theunivcrfities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 

1369 John Wickliffc an Englifhman begins to call in queftion the 

dodrines of the church of Rome about this time, whofe fol- 
lowers are called I^ollards. 

1370 The office of Grand Vizir eftablifhed. 

1377 Inundation of the fea in Flanders. 

1378 Greenland difcover.'d by a Venetian. 
1381 Bills of exchange firft ufed in England. 

1384 1 he firft a<5l of navigation in England; no goods to be ex- 
ported or imported by Englifhmen in foreign bottoms. 

1386 A company of linen weavers from the Netherlands eftabhfli- 

edinl^ondon. Windfor caftle built by Edward HI. 

1387 The firft Lord High Admiral of England inftituted. 

1388 The battle of OtterbMrn between Hotfpur and the earl qf 

Douglas. Bombs invented at Venloo. 
1391 Cards invented in France for the king's amufcmtnt. 
1399 Weftminftcr abbey rebuilt and enlarged. • Weftniinftcr hall 

ditto. Order of the bath inftituted at the coronation of 

Henry IV. renewed in 1725, confifting cf 38 knights. 
140a Tamerlane defeats and takes prifoner Bajazet the Turkifh 

Sultan. 
1405 T^e Canary iflands difcovered by Bathencourt a Norman. 

E e 



32'3 LURONOLOCilCAL TABLE. 

4/yer Co riff. 

1410 Ciuilci-Jiall, London, built, ruiutiiig ui oil culuurs invented 

at Brugc-> by Julin Van-i.y:k. 

1411 Th • univcrfity of St. Aiidrv.vv*s in Scotland founded. 
141 z Algebra brought iVom AruKia into Europe. 

1415 Tbc battle of Agimourt gained over tlie Ircnch by Heury 

V. of I'.ii^land. 
1410 '1 he illand of Madeira difcovered by the rortugucfc. 
1 42 1 1 he revenue of hngland amounted 10 /^J5,754. 
14*8 Ihc fiegc of Orleans, the Hrft blow to the Hnglifli power in 

I'lance. 
1 43 1 A great cartlujuake at Lifbon. 
1431 <-^reat inundat:o::s in Cjjr.'nany. 
143 7 I'lc obliquity of the ecliptic obfervcd bv Ulug Beg to be 

23'' 30' 17". 
144c Printing invented by L. Kotter at Hacrlcm in Holland; 

brougljt into Lnglur.d by W. Cuton, a mcreer of Loudon, 

I47i- 
1446 1 he \ atican libr.iry fouuiltd at Rome. The fea breaks in at 

l>)rt iu H«)lland, and drowns 100,000 people. 
I4J3 Conftantinople taken by i!.e Tiirk's, which ends the caftcrn 

empire J I 23 ycarb from its dedication by Conliantint the 

Circat, und azo6 years from the foundation of Rome. 
1434 The univerfity of (;lafgow in Scotland founded. 
1457 Cilafs firft manufidured iu England. 
1460 hngravir:g and etching on copper invented. The cd)li<iu»ty 

of tlie ecliptic oblcrvtd by I'urbachius, and RegiomoiK.-.nus 

to be 23" 29'. 
1473 '1 he ftudy of the Greek lanjjuage inlrodu-td Into Iraiije. 
1477 'J he un»verfity of Aberdeen m Scotland founded. 
1479 Union of the kingdoms of Airagon an«l Calliie. 

1482 The coaft of Guinea diLoveicd by the I'oitugucfe. -\ court 

of inquiliion ireiiled in .^evillc. 

1483 Richar-l 111. king of i.ngland and laft of the I'latagcnets, ift 

defeated .lud killed at the battle of Eof worth, by Henry 
('I'udorj \'II. which puts aii end to the civil wars between 
the houfes of York and LancaAcr, after a coattft of 30 
years, and the lofj of IOO,ock3 nien. 

I486 Henry eftablifhe* lifty yeomen of the guards, the firll {land- 
ing army. 

1489 Maps ;uid foa charts firft brought to England by Barth. 
Columbus- 

l4;o William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the Greek language 
into England. The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to 
the native Spaniards, arc e.itlrely fubdued by l''erdin:ind,and 
becr.me fubjects to ihat prin:c on ccitain conditions, 
iv'hich are ill obfervcd by the Spaniards whofc clergy ufe 
the inciuiiiiion in all its tortures; and in 1 609, near one 
million of the Moors are driven from Spain to the oppofitc 
I ••ft ttf .Vfrica, {roin wlun.-c they originally came. 



CHRONOLOGICAL 'I'AEI.L'. 3^7 

J/Ur Clriji. 

1492 An-'crica Hi ft difcovcroJ Ity Co!u:nhus, a Cknocfc in the fcrvicc 

of Spam. '1 he Moors expelled from Grun.ida, which they 

had poffL-rTed upvr.rds of oO : years. 

1495 The vcntrcul dileafi introduced into F.urope. 

1496 The Jews and Moors haniftied out of I'ortugal. 

14^7 The Portuguefe firll fail to the Kaft Indies by the Ci'pe of 
Good Hope. South America explored by Anu-ricus \'tfpu- 
fius, from whom it has its name. 

1499 ^^•^'■i'* America difcovered, for Henry VII. by Cabot a Ve- 
n,.tian. 

IjOO Maximilian divides t!)e empire of Crermany into fix circles, 
and adtls four more in 15 12. I'razil difcovered by the 
Portu^ucfe. Florida difcovered by John Cabot an Knglifli- 
man. Paintinjr in Chiaro Obfcuro dilcovired. A great 
plague in Eiij;land. 

1505 Shilim^s firft coined in England. 

IJC7 l he illand of Madag.ifcar difcovered by the Portugucfe. 

1509 Gardening introduced into England from the Net hci lands, 
frf>m whence vegetables were imported hitherto. 

XjIoThc obliquity of the ecliptic obfeived by Wcrncnus to be 
23,'' 28' 30'. 

Jjljlhe battle of flowdcn in which James IV. kmg of Scot- 
land is killed, with the flower of his nobility. 

J514 Caonon bullets of ftone ftill in ufc. 

15 ij The fitll Poly*; lot i:ib!e printed at Alcala. 'I h« kingdom of 
Navarre .innextd to that of Callile by Ferdinand. 

J516 ! he kingdojuof Algiers feized by liarbarofla. 

13 I 7 Martin Luther beg ui the reformation. Egypt is conquered 
by the Turks. '1 he kingdom of the Mam Juki s in Egypt 
ovi rthrown by the Turks, 

151}? Difrovery of New Spain, and the ftiaita of Magellan. 

1521 Henry Vil. for hib writ-iigs in favour of popery, receiv<rs the 
title of Defend', r of tl.- faith from his Holineft. 

IJZZ Rhodes taken by the Turks. The firit voyage round the 
world performed by a fuip of Magellan's Iquadron. 

J526 The inquifition cftablilhed in Portugal. Luthcranifni 
cflablilhcd in (iermany. 

1527 Fome taken a:id plundered by the imperial army, 

1513 Pop^r}- t.bollflicd in Sneile!i. 

152;; The numc of Pr«;teft.mt t .kes its rife from the reform- 
ed proteftir.g againll the church of Rome, at the diet of 
Spires in Gerirai'.y. 

I/ 30 Union of the Prctertants at SmalL-aldr, December Z.Z. Se- 
cretary of flatc*s office eftabliflied in England. 

15.^- -^ great earthquake at Lifbon. 

1532 Ths court of fcnion inp.itutidin Scotland. 

l\y\ Infurredion of the Anah-ptiils in Weftphalia. 

1/34 The reformation takes place in England, under Henry VIII. 
Biirbaroifa fei::cd on the kingdom (»f 'lurji. 



5 -28 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Jl/ter Chrijl. 

^535 'Lhe reformation introduced into Ireland. The foclety of 
-jcfuits formed. 

1539 '^f^^'^ firlt En^-.lifii edition of the bihle authorifed, the prcfcnt 

tranfiatlon finifaed in 16x1. About this time cannon be- 
gan to be ufed in Ihips. Six hundred and foity-five religious 
houfes fupprcfTed in Lnglmd and Whales. 

1540 The variation of the compafs difcovered by Sebaftian 

Cabof. The obiiqaity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Coper- 
nicus to be 23= 28' Z'^. Society of the Jefuits ellabliflicdj 
Sept. 27. 
■^543 Silk fiotkitigs firfl worn by the French king ; firft worn 'n 
England by queen Ehzabeth, 1561 ; the llecl frame f < r 
weaving invented by the Rev. Mr. Lrce of Saint John's 
colle;:e Cambridge, 1589. Pins firil ufed in England, be- 
fore which time the ladies ufed fkewers. Iron cannon and 
mortars made in England. 

1544 Good lands let in England at one fhlUing per acre. 

1545 The famous council of Trcrit begins, and con.tinucs 18 years. 

1547 Firlt law in England ef(;ablifhing the inttrefl of money at 

10 per cent. 

1548 The reformation gained ground in Poland. 

1549 Lords lieutenants of counties inftituted in England. 

i5jo Horfe guards inflituted in England. The bank of Venice 
efl:abliflied about this time. 

155a Books of geography and aftronomy deflroyed in England as 
being infeAed with magic. The book of common prayer 
ellablifhed in England by aiSl of Parliament. 

1554 The kingdom of Aftracan conquered by the Ruffians. 

1555 The Ruffian company eftabliflied in England. 
1558 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign. 

? \6o The reformation in ."-cotland completed by John Knox. 

1561 J^ivonia ceded to Poland. 

1563 Kniv-^afirft made in England. 

Is ^5 Revolt of the Low Countries. Multa attacked by the 

Turks. 
1566 1 he 39 articles of the church of England edablilhed. 
7568 Queen Mary imprifoned in J'.nglancl. Liberty of cjfcrcifmg 

the reformed religion granted to the Low Countries^ 
1569 Royal exchange fjrir built. 

1571 The ifland of Cyprus taken by the Turks. They are defeated 

at Lepanto. 

1572 The great m.afTacre of Proteflants at Paris. A new flar 

in Caffiopaeia cbferved by Cornelius Gemma. It appeared 

in November and difappcared in March. 
1576 The exercife of the Proteftant rtligion authorifed in France. 

This toleration followed by a civil war. 
J570 'I'he firft treaty of alliance betwixt England and the State? 

General, January 7. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 529 

After Chrijl. 

1379 -Fht '^"tch fliake off the Spanlfh yoke, and the republic of 
• Holland begins. Englilh Eaft India company incorpo- 

^•ri'o— -e^abiiihcd, i6co. Turkey company incorporated. 
Ij8o S;r ■n'.rncis i>rake returns from his voyage round the world, 

beinp- thv fiiic .Ene:lifh circumnavigator. Parochial regif- 

ttr ilVi; appointed in England. The kingdom of Portugal 

fcJzed by r'hil'pof Spain. 
Ij8l Copper money iiiil: ufcd in France. 
158?, Pope Gregory introduces the new ftyle in Italy; the 5th of 

October being counted 15. 
1383 Tobacco firfl brought from Virginia into England. The 

firft propofal of fettling a colony in America. 
15S7 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of Elizabeth; after 

18 years imprifonment. 
Ij88 The Spanifn Armada deiiroyed by Drake, and other Englifn 

admirals, rienry IV. paffcs the edicl of Nantes tolerating 

the Protefcaiits. 
1588 Duelling with fmall fwordb introduced into England. 
IJ89 Coaches firft introduced into England ; hackney ad, l6p3/j 

increafed to 1000 in 1770. 

1590 Kand of penfioners inflituted in England. Telefcopes in- 

verted by Janfen, a fpeclacle-makcr in Germany. 

1591 Trinity ccilege, Dublin, bjunded. 

1593 A great plague in London. 

1594 The Jefuits expelled from France. The obliquity of the 

elliptic obferved by Bygius to be 23*^ 30'. 
159'' The fame obferved by Tycho-Brache to be 23° 29' 25". 

1596 A great earthquake at Japan. 

1597 Watches firft brought into England from Germany. 

1598 The edidl of Nantes by Henry IV. of France. 

1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges. 

1603 Queen Elizabeth (the laffc of the Tudors) dies and nominates 

James VI. of Scotland as her fucceffnr ; which unites both 
kingdoms tmder the name of Great-Britain. 

1605 The gunpowder plot difcovered at Weftminfter; being a 

plot to blew up the king and both houfes of Parliament. 

1606 ( aths of allegiance fiift adminiflered in England. 

1608 Colonies fent from England to Virginia. 

1609 The independency of the United States acknowledged by 

Spain. 

1610 Galileo, of Florence, firft difcovers the fatellites about the 

planet Jupiter, by the telefcope lately invented in Ger- 
many. Henry IV. is nnirdered at Paris, by Ravaillac a 
prieft. Thermometers invented by f'iebel, u Dutchman. 

161 1 Baronets firft created in England by James I. May 23. 

161 2 The rcrth-wefl pafTage to China attempted in vain by the 

Englifh. 

J) e 2 



330 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Aft^r Chrijl. 

1614 Napier of Marchcfton, In Scotland, invents the logarithms. 

.Sir Hugh Midalc'ton brings the new river to London 

froin Ware, 
1616 The firft permanent fettlenient in Virginia. 
l6if^ W. Harvey, an EngiifTiman, confinns the doiSlrine of the 

circulation of the blood, which had been firft broached by 

Scrvetius, a French ph)iician,in 1553- 

1620 The btoad filk manufaCiure from raw filk, introduced into 

En^UinJ. Bcirbadoes difcovercd by Sir William Cour- 
teen. Navarre united to France. Coppernioncy firft intro- 
duced in F^nglund. 

1621 New England planted by the Puritans. The two parties of 

whigs i.nd tories formed in England. 
l6i2 The I'alatiaatc reduced by the Iniperialifls. 

1623 The knights of Nova Scotia inilituted. 

1624 M..ll'acre of the EDglifii at Ambiiyna. 

1625 King Je^mes d c.-;, an-a is I'ucceedcd by his fon Charles I. The 

ifland of L;:vbadoes, the tirll Englifh fcttlement in the 
Weil-Indies, is planted. 

1 63 1 The tranfit of Mercury over the fun's diflc, firft cbfervcd by 

Ciaffcndi. A great eruption of Vefuvius. 

1632 'Fhe battle of Lutzen, in which Guftavus Adolphus, king of 

Sweden and h-.ad of the Piotefiants in Germany, is killed. 

1633 Galileo condemned by the inquilltion at Rome. Louiliana 

difcovercd by tht French. 
J635 Province of Alaryland planted by Lord Baltimore. Regular 

pods eftablifhed fron\ London to ScotLnd, Ireland, &•:. 
1636 A tranfjt of Mercury over the fun's dilk ohferved by Caflini. 

1639 A tranfit of Venus over the fun's diik firft obfcrved by Hor- 

rox, November 24. O. t>.3h 15' P. M. 

1640 King Cbarles difobliges his .^cottifh fubjcds ; on which their 

army under general l^ellcy, enters England, and takes New- 
caftle, being encouraged by the male contents in England. 
'J'he nvallacrc in Ireland, whe-n 40,000 Englilh Proteftants 
were killed. 'J'he independence of Portugal recovered by 
John duke of Eraganza. 

1642 King Charles impeaches f:v:- refractory members, which be- 

gins the civil wars in England. 

1643 Excile on beer, ale, <Scc. firft impofed by Parliament. Baro- 

meters inveritk d by Torricelli. 

1648 A new ftar obfervcd in the tail of the Whale by Fabricius. 

1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at White-hall, January 30, 

aged 49. Pendulums firft applied to clocks by Huygens. 

1651 The fociety of Friends firft appeared in Fhigland. 

1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape ot Good Elope eftablifhed. 
1654 Cromv/eil allunxcs the protedorftiip. Tl;e air-pump invent- 
ed by Otto Guerickc of Magdeburg. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 331 

T^fc ?hf *En<.lim under admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the 
' ^^ Spama^^^^^^^^ obfcrved by Huygens. 

,658 Crr^ll dies and is fucceeded in the protedorfh.p by h. 

fon Richard. , , c u , or 

1660 King Charles II. isreftoredby Monk, ^^"^^^"^fZ/.X^^f 
my, after an exile of twelve years •" France and Holland. 
The people of Denmark being oppreffed by the nobles, fu. - 
rend<^ their pnvUeges to Frederick III. ^vho becomes ab- 

1661 ThfoLUqulty of the echptlc obfcrved by Hevellus to be zf 

1662 The /oval fociety eftablifhcd at London by Charles IF 

X663 C-^olin' planted'; 17.8, divided into feparate governments. 

Prunia declared ir.dependent of Poland. 
1664 'Fhe New Netherlands m North America conquered from the 

Swedes iiid Dutch by the Enghlh. 
i660he plague rages in London, and earr.csrff 68.000 perfons. 
1066 Ihe grcttfire of London began September a, and contmued 
three days, in ^vhich were deftroyed 13,000 houfesand 400 
ftreeti. Tea firft ufjd in England. 
1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Enghlh, the New 
^ Nethcrlamb, now the flutes of Pennfylvama, iNew \oik, 
and New Jerf^y. 

,/58 Ditto Aix la Chapclle. 

11 -,t Jam..V Park pLntcd and made a theroughfarc for public 

ufe by Charles IF 
i66q The illand of Cundia taken by the Turks. 
1670 'Fhe Englifh Hudfon's Bay company h-.corporated. ^t^eoh- 
liquity of the ecliptic obfcrved by Mengo.i to be 23° ^8' 24 • 
l6-> Louis XIV. overruns a great part of Holland, when the Dutch 
' " opened their Iluices, being determined to drown their coun- 
try, and retire to their f.ttlements in the Fall Indies. A- 
fiian company eftabUaied. The obliquity of the ecliptic 
obftrvcd by Richer to be zf 28' 54"- 

1677 The micrometer invented by Kirchcr. ^1 a 

1678 Tl.- peace of Nlmeguen. The habeas corpus zA paTed. A 

flrangc darkiufs at noon-day, January 12. 

l68o A grc.t comet appeared, and from its nearnefs to o^ir earth 
alarmed the inhabuants. It continued vifible from Novem- 
ber 3, to March 9. William Penn, a Qu.ikcr, receives a 
charter for planting Pennfylvania. 

16?, 3 India flock foldfroni 360 to joo per cent. 

1685 Chark. IF dies aged 55 years, and is fucceeded by his brother 
lances IF Ihe duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Chai^les 
II. rail's a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle of Sedg- 
more and beheaded The edid of Santes is revoked by 
Louis XIV. and the 1 rotcftants are greatly diftrtfled. 

16S6 The Newtouii-n philolophy pubUihed. 



323 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 

'■P^>- Chnjl. 

1687 ihc palace of Vcrfailles, near Paris, finiflied by Louis XIV. 

1683 The revolution in Great Britain begins, November 5. King 
James abdicates and retires to France, December 3. King^ 
William and queen Mary, daughter and fon-in-law to 
James, are proclaimed February 16. Vifeount Dundee 
fb.nds out for James in Scotland, but is killed by general 
Aiaclcay at the battle of Killycrankie, uj>on which the 
Highlanders wearied with repeated misfortunes difperfe. 
Smyrna uellrcyed by an earthquake. 

168^ The land-tax palVcd in Fnglaud- The toleration a<5t pafled 
in ditto. Several bifnoj.s are deprived for not taking the 
oaths to William. William lulicr, who pretended to 
prove the prince of Wal:rs fpurious, was vot.d by the com- 
mons to be a notorious cheat, impollor and faile accui^r. 

1689 lipifcopacy abolifhed in Scotland- 

169D Tlie battle of the Boync, gained by William aii^ainft Janiis in 
Ireland. 

16^1 Th'j war in Ireland finiihed by fiirrender of LiriKriA to 
William. 'I'he obliquity of the ecliptic obferved by rlam- 
fttad to be 2;,'' 2S' :,.". 

lfy<)Z The Fngliih and Duteh fleets, commanded by adniiral Ruf- 
fcl, defeat the French llect off La Hngue. The niaffairc 
of (;leticoe in Scotiand, January 31, (). S. Earthquakes in 
F.rgland and Jamaica, September 8. Hanover made an 
eled: rate of the er.>pire. 

16^)3 Bayomtb at the end of loaded muCiets firft ufcd by the Frjnch 
atri'nfl (he confed-^rates in the battle of Twrin. Bank of 
Fjighud eftablilhed by king William. The firll j.ublic 
lotrery was drawn this year. 

1694 Oiieea Mary dies at the a<^e of 33, and William reigns :1o!k>. 
Stamp duties inilitutcd in England. 

1696 i'he peace of Kyfwiv.^. 

1699 The Scots iLtrled a co'ony at the ifthmusof Dancn in Ameri- 

ca and called it Caledonia. 

1700 Ch-'.rlcsXil. of Sweden begins his reign. King James 11. 

dies at St. Gcrmains, in the 68th year of his age. 

1 701 Pruflla creeled into a kingdom. Society foi the propagation 

of the gofpcl in foreign parts eftablilhed. - 

1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fuccceded by queen An- 

ne, daughter to James II. wh». with the emperor and ftates 
general, renews the war againll France and Spain. The 
French fent colonies to the MiflifTippi. 

1703 The obUquity of the ecliptic obferved by Bianchini to be 23"^ 

1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by admiral Rookc. 'I he 

battle of Blenheim won by the duke of jViarlLorough and 
Alhes again ft the French. The court of exchequer in- 
ftituted in England. 
1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scotland, fignc'l 



eHRONOLOGlCAL TABLE. 3 5 J 



Jf:c> Chrljl 



^Jufy ia. The battle of Rumllieo ^von by Marlborough and 
the allies. 

1707 The fiift Britifh parliament. The allies defeated at -Umanza. 

1 7c8 Minorca te:ken from the Spaniards by general ::tanhope. I ho 

bi^tlc of Oiidenarde won by Marlborough and the AUic 

1709 Peter the Great Czar of Mofcovy, defeats Charles XII. at 

Poltowa, who flies to Turkey. The battle of Malplaquct 
won by Marlborough and the Allies. ^ 

1 710 Queen Anne changes the whig miniftry for others more fa- 

vourable to the interea of her brother the late Pretender. 
The Cathedral church of St. Paul, London, rebuilt by bir 
Chriftopher Wren in 37 years, at one milhon cxpciifc,by a 
duty on coals. The Englifh South Sea company began. 

1 71 2 Duke of Hamilton and Lord MohunkiUed ma duel m Hyde 

Park. 

1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, 

New Britain, and Hudfon's Bay, in North America, were 
yielded to Great Britain ; Gibraltar, and Minorca, in Eu- 
rope, were alfo confirmed to the faid crown by this treaty. 

1714 Queen Anne dies, at the age of 50, and is fuccccded by George 

\. Intereft in England reduced to 5 per cent. * 

1 715 Louis XIV. dies and is fucceeded by his great grand-fon Lou- 

is XV. the late king of France. The rebellion in Scotland 
begins in September, under the earl of Mar, in favour of 
the Pretender. The adjon of Shcriffmuir, and the furren- 
der of Prcflon, both in November, when the rebels dii- 
perfe. The obliquity of the ecliptic obfcrvcd by Louvdlc 

tobea3° 28' 24". ^ , , ^ 

\1\(i The Pretender married the princcfs Sobicfca grand-daughter 
of John Sobieflci late king of Poland. An ad puffed for 
Septennial parliaments. 

1 7 18 Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to the duke of 
Savoy. 

I 719 'I he Miffiflippi fchcme at its height in France. Lombc s lilk- 
throwing machine containing 25>5^6 wheels eredted at 
Derby in England : takcsuj) one-eighth of a mile ; one water- 
wheel moves the reft ; and in 24 hours it works 31 8,504,(;6o 
yards of organzine fi k thread. 

1720 The South-fea fcheme in England, begun April 7, was at its 
height at the end of June, and quite funk about Septem- 
ber 29. A great earthquake in China. 

J 724 An earthquake in Denmark. 

1727 King George dies in the 68th year of his sge, and is fuc- 
ceeded by his only fon George II. Inoculation fir ft tried 
on criminals with fuccefs. Ruflia, formerly a dukedom, is 
now eftablifhed as an empire. The aberration of the fixe<i 
ftars difcovcred and accounted for by Dr. Bradley. 

J7^2Kouli Kha» ufurps the Pcrfian throne, conquers the Mogul 



S34 CHRONOLOGICWI- TAlil.I.. 

Jfur CLyiJI. 

t:r.p:rf,;:nd returns with two hiindrcii ana tiiirty-onr mllii- 
on lltrling. ."locral pulilic-ipiriccd gc.itlcmcu bc^iii the 
fcitlciiunt of (ieorj^ia in North America. 

I7,?3 The Jefuits cxpiUcd from Paraguay. 

J 736 Capt. Portcous having ordered his foidicrs to fire upon the 
poi)ul;ice at an cxcoution of a fnnigj;lr:r, is himfelf h..ngcd 
by the mob at Hdinbiirj^. A trar.fit «>f Mcti-iiry oblcrvcd by 
C'ulliui. 

1737 A drc;i(lful hurricane at tljc mouth of the G.in^cs, Ovft. 10. 

173^ WcdminflcF bridge, tonliHing of 15 arches, bcgu.'. ; fiuilh- 
cd in 1750, at the expenfj «.f >C389i^oo defr..ycJ by parli 
ament. The order of .St. Januarias eftablifhed at N:.pLs. 

J 739 Letters of Marque ilTuedout in Britain cgainft Spain, Jn y 21. 
and war dcclarcil OvStohjr 23. 1 he empire of Imlollan ru- 
ined "by Kouli Khan. An intcnfc iVoit in Britain. 

1743 T1>t- battle t)f Dcttingen won by the Englilh and Allies in 

f.:vour of th.c f^ctn of Hungary. 
— — • A dreadful plague in .Sicily. 

1 744 War declared agiinft France. Commodore Aiifon returns 

from his voyage round the world. 
174J The Allies lofc the battle at Fontc.ioy. The rebellion break? 

out in Scotland, and the Pretender's army defeated by the 

duke of Cumberland at CullmUn, April 16, I 746. 
1746 Britiih linen company crcCted- Lima dcftroycd by an carth- 

quak^. 
T"'47 Kouli Khan murdered. 
I74JJ The peace of Aix-1 i-ChapJle, by whicli a rcftitution of all 

places taken during the war was to be made on all fides. 

1749 The intereft on the Britiih funds reduced to three per cent. 

Britiih hcrrinj^-lir.iery incorporated. The colony of .Nova 
ircetia fouuded. 

1750 Earthquake in >r.;iland. 

1731 Frederick prince of Wales, father to his prefent majefVy,died. 
Antiquarian fo..iety at London incarporated. 

1752 The new ftyle introduced into Great Britain, the 3d of Sep- 

tember belnj; counted the 14th. 

1753 The Britiili Mufeum creded at Montagire-houfe. Society ol 
arts, manufaolurts a:.d com iiercc inftituted in London. 

I7J4 A dreadful eruption of Mou'it ttna. A great ojrtiiquaI:e 

at Conftantir.uple, Cairo, &c. S-.'ptember 2. 
1755 Quito in Peru delhoyed by an eartliq-juke, April 28. Liiben 

dtfftroyed by an earthquake, November 1. 
I7j6 One hundred and forty-fix I'ngliihnieii arc confined in the 
black hole at Calcutt.i in the Kail Indies hy order of the na- 
bob, u!;d 123 ff.und dead next n orning. Mi'.rine fociety 
ellablifhed at London. 'I be king of Pruliia commenced hof- 
tilities in the month of Aiiguft ia :f :\xony. Defeats the Auf- 
* rrians at Lo. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. o35 

JfL-r ar:l\. 

1757 Damien attempted to aflafllniuc th^* French king. The king 
of PruHu invades Bohemia ; d. leats the Auftrians at 
RcIchtMiburoh April 21, and at Prague May 6. Repulfed 
by count Daun at Kolin, June 18. I'ie Allies defeated by 
the Trench at Haftenheck, July 26. Convention of Cloftcr- 
feven, September 8. The king pf Prullia defeats the 
French and Aufl:^ian^ at Rolbach, November 5. 1 he Pruf- 
fians def;:ated near Brellaw, November aa. The Auftrians 
defeated at Lifl'a, December 5. 

1758 Sor.egal taken by the Britilh, May i. They take Louif- 

buro-, July 27. liic king of PrulFia defeats thr RulTians at 
Zorndorf, Auj^aift 25. Is defeated by count l)aun at Hoch- 
Kirchen, O<^tober 14. Gorce taken by Commodore Keppel, 
December 29. Attempt to alTaflinate the king of Por- 
tugal, December 3. 

1759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Qy^bcc, which is 

gairei'. by the Eritifh. 

The iVench defeated by prince FerdiT'aiid at Bergen, April 
13th. Gaudr.loupe taken by the Britifli May firft. King of 
Prufha defeated by the Rulhansat Cunerfdorf, Auguft 12. 

1759 The French fleet defeated by admiril Hawke, November 
20th. Balbcc and Tripoli dellroycd by an earthquake, De- 
cember 5. 

I 760 King George II. dies 0<5tobcr 25, in the 77th year of his age, 
and is fuccccdcd by his prcfent majefty, who, on the 22d 
of September 1 76 1, niarried the prineefs Charlotte of 
Meckicr.burgh Strelitz. Blackfriars bridge, confiding of 
nine arches begun; finifhcd 1 7 70, at the expcnfe of 
^151,840 to be difchargcd by a toll. A trar.fit of Venus 
over the fim, June 6. Earthquaktsin .^yria, Ot*^ )bcr 13. The 
king of Pruflla defeats the Auflrians at Torgau, Nov. 3. 

1761 Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, J.inuary ij. Belleifle fur- 

rendered to the Britifli, Febniary 4. 

1762 War declared againrt Spain. Pc'er III emp. ror of RufTia, is 

depofed, imprifoned and murdered. American philofophi- 
cai foci'.ty eftabliflicd in Philadelphia George Augullus 
Frederick, prince of Wales, born Augufl lath. Martinico 
furrendered to the Britifh, Feb. 4. Havann;.h furrender- 
rdto ditto, Auy^. 12. Manilla take»i by ditto, Ocflcber 6. 

1763 Thr defmitivc treaty of peace between (Jreat Britain, France, 

Spa::;, and Portugal, concluded at Paris February ic; '.vhich 
eonfirYns to CJrt^at Britain the exten.'ivc prt^vinces of Ca- 
nada, i^aft and Weft Florida, and part of Louifiana, in 
N ordi America: aifo tlie iflands of Granada, 6t. Vincent, 
Dominica and Tobago in the Weft Indies. 'I'he Jefuits 
expelled from France. 
r-'64 The parliament granted £10,000 to Harrifon for hie difco- 



556 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLH. 

After Chrljl. 

very of the longitude by his time-piece. Famine and refti- 
Icnce in Italy. An earthquake at Lifbon. 

1765 His mijefty's royal charter palTed for incorporating the focic- 

ty of artin.3. An a6l pafled for annexing the fovereignty of 
the ifland of Man to the crown of Great Britain. 

1766 April 21, a fpot or macula of the fun more than thrice the 

bignefs of our earth, paffcd the fun's centre. The American 
ftamp-a<5l repealed March 18. A great earthquake at 
Conftantinoplc. The Jefuits expelled from Bohemia and 
Denmark. 

1767 The Jcfuits expelled from France, Spain, Venice, and Genoa 

i^-pril 2. 
Martinico almoft deftroyed by an earthquake. The Protef- 
tants tolerated in Poland, November a. 

1768 Academy of painting eftaoliflicd in London. The Turks 

impriftiij th*' Riiflian ambaflador, and declare war againft 
that empire. The Jefuits expelled from iNaplce, Malta and 
Parma. 

1769 Paoli fled from Corfica, June 13. The ifland then reduced 

by the Treiich. 

1770 An earthquake at St. Domingo. 

177 1 Dr. Solander and Banks in his Britannic Majefly's fhip the En- 

deavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a voyage round the 
world, having made feveral important difcoveries in the 
South feas. An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from 
the coaft of the Cafpian fea to the frontiers of China. 

1772 The kirvg of Sweden changes the conftitution from arifto- 

cracy to a limited monarchy. The pretender marries a 
princefsof Germany, grand-daughter of Thomas late earl 
of Aylefoury. The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruflla, 
and the king of Pruflia ftrip the king of Poland of a great 
part of his dominions, which they divide among them- 
felves, in violation oi^ the moft folemn treaties. 

1773 Captain Pliipps is fent to e\plore the north pole ; but hav- 

ing made 81 ciegrees, is in danger of being locked up by 
the ice, and his attempt to difcover a paflage in that quar- 
^ter proves fruitlefs. The linglifti Faft-India comprny 
having by conqueft or treaty, acquired the extenfive pro- 
vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Babar, containing 13 millions 
of inhabitants, great irrcgularitjes arc committed by 
their fervants abroad ; upon which government tnter:''-:-res 
and fends out judges, &c. for the better udmirufrration of 
juftice. The war between the Ruffians and tht Tr.rks 
proves difgraceful to the latter, who lofe the ifli-ndsin the 
Archipelago, and by the fea are every where unfiiccefslul. 
The fcciety of Jefuits fupprnTed by the Pope's bull, Au- 
guft 2J. 

1774 Peace is proclaimed betv/ecn the Rufllans and the lurks. 

The Britifli parliament having paffcd an ad laying a duty 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 337 

After Chrijl. 

f>i three-pence per pound upon all teas imported into 
America, the colonifts, confidering this as a grievance, 
deny the right of the Britifli parliament to tax them. The 
American colonies fend deputies to Philadelphia, who af- 
fume the title of The Congrefs of the I'hirtecn United Pro- 
vinces. 

1775 The American war commences. A»5lion at Bunker's Hill, 

June 7th. 
. 1 he Spaniards land near Algiers and are defeated, July 8th. 

1776 The cor.grtfs declare the United States of America independ- 

ent of the crown and parliament of Great Britain, 4th July. 

The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at Long Ifland, 

Augufl Z7th. 

1777 Philadelphia taken by the Britifh, Odl. 3d. 

General Burgoyne with his army furrender to the Americans. 

1778 Philadelphia evacuated by the Brit ilh, June 18. 

1779 A moft extraordinary eruption of Vefuvius, Augufl 8th. 

The fioge of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards, July 8th. 

1780 Jan. 14th, 6 h. A. M. the thermometer fufpcnded in tlie open 

air at Glafgow, (lood at 46° below o. 
• The Spanifh fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney, Jan. i6th. 

Charlefton furrendered to the Britifli, May 1 2th. 

A dreadful infurreilion in London, and riots in many other 

places of the kingdom. 
A great number of Britifli fliips taken by the combined fleets 

of France and Spain. 

Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Camden. 

A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward Iflands, 06t. 9th. 

An extraordinary ftorm of wind in England. 

War declared againfl; the Dutch, Dec. 20th. 

1 78 1 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and Britifli fleets 

near the Dogger Bank, Aug. 5th. 
— — Lord Cornwallis with his army furrender to the united forces 
of France and America, OA. 1 8th. 

1782 Minorca furrendered to the Spaniards, February 4th. 

'i'he French fleet under De GrafTe defeated and alniofl: dc- 

flroycd by Admiral Rodney, April I2th. 
— — - The Spanifli floating batteries before Gibraltar entirely de- 

flroyed, Sept. 12th. 

1783 Preliminaries of a' general peace figncd. America declared 

independent, Jan. 20th. 

A dreadful earthquake attended with many extraordinary 

circumftanccs, in Ita'y and Sicily. 

The Sun obfcurcd by a kind of fog during the whole fura^ 

mer. 

A volcanic eruption in Iceland furpafling any thing re- 
corded in hiftory. The lava fpouted up in three places to 
the heiglit of two miles perpendicular, and continued thus 
for two months ; during which time it covered a trad of 
E e 



338 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

After Chrtji. 

3600 fquare miles of ground, in feme places more than 

100 feet deep. 
" A large meteor appears to the northward of Shetland, and 

takes its dire(5lion fnuthward, with a velocity little inferior 

to that of the earth in its annual courfc round the fun. Its 

tra(5l obferved for more than 1 000 miles. 
1787 General Convention meet at Philadelphia for the purpofe of 

forming a new conflitution which was afterwards adopted 

by all the ftates. 
1789 Firft Congrefs meet under the federal conflitution, March 4th. 

States General opened at Paris, April 25. 

Baftile demolifhed by the people, July 14th. 

Conflitution of Trance framed, Auguft 6th. 

1792 Royalty abolilhed in France and republiranifm adopted. 

1793 Louis XVI beheaded on the 2ifl; of January. The queen 

of France fhared a fimilar fate on the i6th of 0(5lober. 
1799 General Bonaparte declared firft conful. General Wafliing- 

ton died on the 14th of December. 
1802 A general peace in confequenee of the treaty figned at 

Amiens on the 27th of March. 
1804 Napoleon Bonaparte declared emperor of the French and 

crowned by Pius VII. 



RJa'^^ 



n 



